
Class _XB-23J 
Book ' /o ?^ 



CjJPVRIGKT DEPOSm 



CLASS BOOK 

OF 

ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



LOCHHEAD 





T. W. Harris 



Asa Fitch 



TowNEND Glover 





B. D. Walsh 



C. V. Ri;.EY 





W. Saunders J. Fletcher C. J. S. Bethune 

Some Pioneer Workers in Economic Entomology. 



CLASS BOOK 

OF 

ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ECONOMIC INSECTS 
OF THE NORTHERN UNITED STATES AND CANADA 



BY 

WILLIAM LOCHHEAD, B. A., M. S. (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY IN THE MACDONALD COLLEGE OF McGILL UNIVERSITY; F. A. A. S.J 

MEMBER OF THE ENT. SOC. OF AMERICA, AND THE AM. ASSOC. ECON. ENT.; 

EX-PRESIDENT ENT. SOC. OF ONTARIO; PRESIDENT QUEBEC SOC. FOR 

THE PROTECTION OF PLANTS, ETC. 



WITH 257 ILLUSTRATIONS 



PHILADELPHIA 

BLAKISTON'S SON & CO. 

1012 WALNUT STREET 



^-^^i" 

^-^u.* 



Copyright, 1919, by P, Blakiston's Son & Co. 



APR 18 !9I9 ^/ 



THH MAPliE FKKB^ T O R K PA 



PREFACE 

All teachers are agreed that the best results in the classroom are 
secured only by the adoption of the best pedagogical methods, with 
ready access to the necessary specimens and literature. Just what 
these methods comprise, however, is, with many teachers, a matter of 
opinion. Quot homines tot sententice, nevertheless the indulgent reader 
may concede that an experience of over twenty years as a teacher of 
economic entomology in agricultural colleges may warrant the voicing 
of the author's conviction that instruction in this subject should con- 
sist of (i) studies on the structure, metamorphosis, and bionomics of 
insects, carried on both in the laboratory and in the field; (2) practice 
in the classification and description of the more common insects in 
their various stages; and (3) studies of the methods of control, with 
practical exercises in the preparation and appHcation of insecticides. 

Although several most excellent manuals on Economic Entomology 
have been published in recent years, there seems to be a need for a 
book providing the necessary information for the student in the class- 
room, laboratory and field along the lines indicated above. 

This class-book, therefore, has been prepared to meet the needs of 
the class-room instructor, and his needs have influenced the mode of 
presentation of the subject material. It does not presume to take the 
place of the invaluable and well-known works of Folsom, Comstock, 
Slingerland and Crosby, and others; but rather, it aims to present such 
material as will best help the student in acquiring a fair working knowl- 
edge of the modern science of Economic Entomology. 

The treatment of many of the topics is necessarily limited, and the 
keys for the identification of orders, famiHes, and genera make no pre- 
tensions to completeness. The descriptions of the species discussed in 
Part III are stripped of all unnecessary verbiage so that all the essential 
facts of the life-histories may be included in the space at the author's 
disposal. 



Vi PREFACE 

Laboratory exercises have been omitted, as the intelligent teacher 
is in a better position than the author to prepare practicums adapted to 
local conditions. 

It was thought advisable to limit the species discussed mainly to 
those belonging to the Northern United States and Canada, i.e., to 
the Canadian, Transition, and Upper Austral Zones. It was also 
deemed advisable to make but brief mention of the insects affecting 
forest trees. Students interested in such studies are referred to the 
recent bulletins of A. D. Hopkins of Washington and J. M. Swaine of 
Ottawa for the results of the latest investigations. 

The author is indebted to many fellow- teachers and workers for valu- 
able aid and suggestions in the preparation of this book. In most 
respects it is a compilation from recent text-books, bulletins, and arti- 
cles. In a work of this kind errors are likely to appear in spite of 
every precaution, but considerable care has been taken to reduce them 
to a minimum. 

Special mention must be made of the kindness of many authors 
and publishers in furnishing illustrations, and the writer here thanks 
his friend and teacher. Professor J. H. Comstock of Cornell University, 
for permission to use illustrations of wing-venation from his recent 
work, ''The Wings of Insects;" Dr. C. G. Hewitt, Dominion Entomolo- 
gist, for free use of cuts from the publications of the Canadian Ento- 
mological Branch; Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the U. S. Bureau of 
Entomology, for many electrotypes of the Bureau illustrations; Pro- 
fessor J. H. Sanders of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment 
Station, for permission to use his admirable figures of pygidia of scale 
insects; Mr. J. J. Davis, Federal Agent of the U. S. Bureau of Entomol- 
ogy, Lafayette, Indiana, for several photographs of breeding cages, 
etc.; Professor L. Caesar of the Ontario Agricultural College, and Dr. S. 
Hadwen, Dominion Pathologist, Health of Animals Branch, Ottawa, 
for furnishing several cuts; Mr. Arthur Gibson, Entomological Branch, 
Ottawa; Professor W. H. Brittain of the Truro Agricultural College; 
Professor P. J. Parrott of the New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station; Professors Herrick, Crosby and Johannsen of Cornell Univer- 
sity; Professor W. A. Riley of the Minnesota Agricultural College; Dr. 
Edith Patch of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station; Professor 
W. E. Britton of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station; 
Professor V. L. Kellogg of the Leland Stanford Jr. University, Professor 



PREFACE Vii 

W. B. Herms of the University of California; and the MacMillan Co., 
the Comstock Publishing Co., Henry Holt and Co., and P. Blakiston's 
Son and Co., for permission to use certain illustrations from their 
entomological publications. 

To Mr. E. M. DuPorte, M. Sc, of Macdonald College, the author is 
specially indebted for the drawings illustrative of the structure of 
insects in Part I, for valuable criticisms, and for substantial help in 
proof-reading. 

W. LOCHHEAD. 
Macdonald College. 



CONTENTS 



INTRODUCTION 

PART I— THE STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS 

OF INSECTS 

Page 

The Branch Arthropoda i 

The Class Insecta 2 

Structure of Insects 2 

External Anatomy 2 

Internal Anatomy ip 

The Development of Insects 30 

Embryology, Metamorphosis — stages 30 

Losses due to Insects 38 

Beneficial Insects 3q 

Insects and Birds ,. 44 

Insects and Plants 4^ 

Insects as Plant Disease Carriers 46 

Insects and Disease 4q 

Insect Behavior toward Stimuli ry 

Relation of Insects to Temperature and Humidity ^g 

Distribution of Insects 60 

Methods of Studying Economic Insects 64 

PART II.— THE IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO 
FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD CROPS, ETC. 

Insects injurious to Cereal Crops yj 

Insects injurious to Indian Corn or Maize 72 

Insects injurious to Clover and Alfalfa 73 

Insects injurious to Peas and Beans 74 

Insects injurious to Stored Grain Products 74 

Insects injurious to Root Crops 75 

Insects injurious to the Potato Crop y5 

Insects injurious to Garden Vegetables yy 

Insects injurious to the Apple 77 

Insects injurious to the Plum g^ 

Insects injurious to the Cherry 32 

Insects injurious to the Peach g^ 

Insects injurious to the Raspberry and Blackberry g3 

Insects injurious to the Gooseberry and Currant 84 

ix 



X CONTENTS 

Pace 

Insects injurious to the Grape 85 

Insects injurious to the Strawberry 86 

Insects affecting Shade Trees 87 

Insects injurious to Greenhouse plants 90 

Insects affecting Domestic Animals 90 

Insects of the Household 92 

PART III.— CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON 

INSECTS 

Common Orders 93 

Aptera group 94 

Thysanura 95 

Neuropteroida group 96 

Mallophaga 100 

Orthopteroida group 102 

Isoptera 102 

Corrodentia 103 

Blattoidea 103 

Mantoidea 105 

Dermaptera 106 

Phasmoidea 106 

Orthoptera 107 

Thysanoptera 118 

Homoptera 122 

Hemiptera 158 

Siphunculata 167 

Lepidoptera 169 

Diptera 239 

Siphonaptera 279 

Coleoptera 280 

Hymenoptera 343 

Invertebrates other than Insects 363 

PART IV.— THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 

Factors of Insect Control 373 

Methods of Control 374 

The Action of Insecticides 400 

Utilization of Parasitic Insects 401 

Bibliography 407 

Glossary 409 

Index 415 



INTRODUCTION 



Economic Entomology is that phase of Entomology which relates 
to the control of injurious insects. Its scope is much wider than that of 
applied entomology, for the latter, properly speaking, is the application 
of the principles that have been formulated by the economic entomolo- 
gist as a result of his investigation of insects and their relations to their 
environment. Its scope embraces a study of the structure, habits and 
life-histories of the injurious insects and of their relations to all the 
natural and artificial conditions to which they may be subjected. It 
also includes the investigation of the nature of the losses and the prac- 
ticable means by which they may be prevented or lessened. 

Considering the great variety of insect forms, their diverse methods 
of food habits, the large number of kinds of hosts which supply them 
with food, and the enemies which tend to destroy them, it becomes 
evident that the problem of insect control is most complex. As 
Professor Forbes says: " The subject matter of this science is not insects 
alone, nor plants alone, nor farming alone. One may be a most ex- 
cellent entomologist er ^botanist, or he .may have the whole theory and 
practice of agriculture at his tongue's end, and at his fingers' end as well, 
and yet be without knowledge or resources when brought face to face 
with a new practical problem in economic entomology. The subject is 
essentially the relation of these things to each other; of insect to plant 
and of plant to insect, and of both of these to the purposes and opera- 
tions of the farm, and it involves some knowledge of all of them." 

The Rise of Economic Entomology 

The records of the rocks reveal the existence of insects at an early 
period in the world's history, long before man made his appearance. 
Early historic records also show clearly that not only man himself but 
also his crops and flocks suffered from insect attacks. The ravages of 
locusts, canker worms and palmer worms are frequently described in 
graphic language by the Old Testament prophets. 

xi 



Xll INTRODUCTION 

In America, too, before the advent of Europeans, the Indians were 
acquainted with insects that injured their corn fields, and during the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the crops of the early settlers were 
seriously ravaged by ''canker worms" and grasshoppers. One may say, 
therefore, with Webster: "the actual economic element in entomology 
is inevitably as old as Agriculture itself." On account, however, of the 
ignorance and superstition that prevailed even among the learned 
classes regarding the nature and habits of insects, no progress in the 
control of insect pests was made or was possible until the latter half of 
the nineteenth century. The introduction of rational methods of 
control had to wait until considerable advance had been made in the 
classification of insects and in a knowledge of their structure, habits and 
life-history. 

In so far as America is concerned, it may be said that outbreaks of 
certain insects, viz., the Rocky Mountain locust, the cotton worm 
and the Colorado potato beetle during the last quarter of the nineteenth 
century produced wide-spread attention to the great losses caused by 
them, and forced the U. S. government at that time to appoint a 
commission of entomological specialists for the purpose of investi- 
gating the conditions. It was during this period that some of the 
modern insecticides and improved spraying machinery were introduced, 
Paris green becoming the standard remedy against the Colorado 
potato beetle and the cotton "worm, and kerosene emulsion against 
sucking insects. The reports of Harris, Fitch and Riley, especially 
those on the Rocky Mountain locust laid the foundation for future 
ecological studies when the relations of injurious insects to other 
organisms and to external factors were closely investigated. 

About the beginning of this century the San Jose scale and the 
cotton boll-weevil threatened two important industries, and as a result 
of the investigations many advances were made in the use of spraying 
machinery and insecticides, notably lime-sulphur wash and hydrocyanic 
acid gas, and in the application of biological processes and principles. 

In the attempt to solve the problem of the control of the gypsy and 
brown- tail moths during the last twelve years another very important 
advance was made toward a better understanding of parasitic insects 
and of the part they are likely to play in the control of insects in the 
future. Regarding the outlook of fighting insects along this line Dr. 
Howard says: ''There will be a very considerable development of this 



INTRODUCTION XIU 

method of warfare against injurious insects in the future. It should be 
termed "the biological method of fighting insects" and, looking at the 
problem in a broad way, so far as this country is concerned, when we 
consider that more than one-half of our principal crop pests have been 
accidentally imported from other countries, there seems no reason why a 
systematic study of a very large number of parasitic and predatory 
insects native to the countries from which these pests were accidentally 
imported should not be made with a view of ultimate importation of 
all of them into the United States. In fact, since there exist all over 
the world beneficial insects, many of which can undoubtedly be accli- 
matized here, and some of which will undoubtedly prove of value to 
American agriculture, carefully planned work should be begun looking 
to the ultimate increase of our insect population by the addition of as 
many of these beneficial forms as possible. Of course this would mean 
a very great amount of careful biological study in the countries of origin 
by men specially trained in this sort of work, if results of value are to be 
obtained. Strikingly beneficial results could not be expected speedily, 
and, in fact, we might not be able for many years to estimate the bene- 
fits derived from such a service; but it seems clear that we should have 
in this country as many of these surely beneficial forms as can be 
acclimatized." 

The greatest impetus to the development of economic entomology 
was perhaps the establishment of Experiment Stations and Agricultural 
Colleges where courses of instruction were given in this branch of 
zoology, and where hundreds of students have been trained to undertake 
investigations of the many insect problems that were awaiting solution. 
An interesting feature of the latest development in the study of inju- 
rious insects is the method of investigation that has been adopted in 
most entomological stations. ''Field stations" where the insects are 
studied under both field and laboratory conditions are established in 
infested areas, each in charge of an expert and a staff of assistants. 
These officers also keep in close touch with the insect conditions of the 
district, and are often able to "test out" control measures at many 
places by interesting the farmers and orchardists in the valuable work 
they are conducting. 

Even in a sketch of the main features of the rise of American eco- 
nomic entomology, such as this is, mention must be made of some of 
the pioneer entomologists who laid firmly and well the foundations of 



XIV INTRODUCTION 

this modern science. Dr. T. W. Harris (i 759-1856) in Massachusetts, 
Dr. Asa Fitch (i 809-1879) in New York, Townend Glover at Washing- 
ton, B. D. Walsh (1808-1869), Dr. C. V. Riley (1843-1895) in Missouri 
and at Washington, Dr. W. Le Baron and Cyrus Thomas in Illinois, 

and Dr. W. Saunders (i835-i9i4),Dr. C.J. S. Bethune (1838 ) and 

Dr. James Fletcher (1852-1908) in Canada stand out prominently on 
account of the excellent investigations of the life-histories of injurious 
insects and their careful determination of effective methods of control, 
(See frontispiece.) 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 
PART I 



THE STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF 

INSECTS 

BRANCH ARTHROPODA (Arthropods) 

Crabs, crayfish and lobsters, spiders and scorpions, centipedes and 
millipeds have in common with insects jointed appendages and seg- 
mented, bilaterally symmetrical bodies with a chitinized external skeleton 
(exo-skeleton) — distinguishing characteristics of the great branch 
Arthropoda of the Invertebrate animals. These near relatives of 
insects may be grouped into four classes: 

1. Crustacea. — Aquatic, gill-breathing, wingless Arthropods with 
two pairs of antennae and at least five pairs of legs. Examples: Crabs, 
crayfish, lobsters, shrimps, sow-bugs, etc. 

2. Arachnida. — Air-breathing, wingless Arthropods without anten- 
nae, and usually with four pairs of legs. Examples: Spiders, mites, 
ticks, and scorpions. 

3. Diplopoda. — Air-breathing, wingless Arthropods with one pair 
of antennae and numerous body segments each of which bears two 
pairs of legs. The mouth-parts consist of a pair of mandibles and a 
compound plate. Example: Millipeds. 

4. Chilopoda. — Air-breathing, wingless Arthropods with one pair 
of antennas and numerous body segments each bearing one pair of 
legs. The mouth-parts consist of one pair of mandibles and two pairs 
of maxillae. Example: Centipedes. 

(Classes 3 and 4 are frequently grouped as sub-classes of the class 
Myriapoda.) 



2 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Class Insecta (Insects) 

The Hexapoda or Insecta are air-breathing Arthropoda with one 
pair of antennae, three pairs of legs, and usually one or two pairs of 
wings in the adult state. 

Insects form a well-defined class of animals, remarkable for the 
large number of species. The abundance of some species is so great 
that frequently they constitute a menace to the life of plants upon which 
they feed. The economic importance of insects is being rapidly realized 
by the public in recent years on account of the prominence given to 
the part taken by the common house fly in the spread of typhoid 
fevers and other diseases, the mosquitoes in malaria and yellow fever, 
the San Jose scale and codling worm in orchards, the boll-weevil 
in cotton fields, the army worm and hessian fly in grain fields, the 
tent caterpillar and bark beetles in orchards and forests, and many 
other pests that are causing much annoyance, danger and loss. 



The Structure of Insects • 

EXTERNAL ANATOMY 

The body of the insect is bilaterally symmetrical and is divided 
into three distinct parts — the head, the thorax and the abdomen, each 
composed of a number of segments separated by membranous portions 
(Fig. i). Each segment again is made up of a number of sclerites, 
hardened plates separated from each other by seams or impressed lines 
known as sutures. The skeleton is external, and is in form a hollow 
cylinder with the muscles attached within. The skin layer or cuticle 
is laminated, consisting of two layers secreted by the underlying 
hypodermal cells. The hard tough texture of the skin is due to chitin, 
an organic substance resembling that which gives the characteristic 
texture to horns and hoofs. 

{a) Head. — The skeleton of the head or skull is composed of six 
or seven closely united segments, and carries the eyes and antennce. 
The mouth is situated on the front ventral surface. The following 
regions can be easily recognized: 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



Epicranium 



(a) Vertex or crown, the summit of the head, often 
with oceUi. 

(b) Front or face. 

(c) Genae or cheeks. 

(d) Occiput, which surrounds the posterior opening of 
the skull. 

(e) Clypeus, to which the labrum or upper lip is attached. 
(/) Gula, to which the labium or lower lip is attached 

(see Figs. 2 and 3). 



Forem/jg ,v H/ndmh 




Fig. I. — Diagram showing the position and arrangement of the principal organs 
and appendages of an insect. Ant., Antenna; Br., brain; Ao., aorta; LM., leg mus- 
cles originating in the thorax; DM., dorsal longitudinal muscles of abdomen; H., 
heart; MT., Malpighian tubules; ED., efferent duct (oviduct or vas deferens) of 
reproductive system; C, gonad (ovary or testis); Cer., cercus; A., anus; Gon., 
gonapophyses; CD., common duct (vagina or seminal vesicle) of reproductive sys- 
tem; VG., ganglia of ventral nerve chain; Ty., tracheal trunk showing origin and 
distribution of ventral, dorsal and visceral tracheal branches; VM., ventral longi- 
tudinal muscles; TS., tergo-sternal muscles; Cox., coxa; Tro., trochanter; Fern., 
femur; Tib., tibia; Tar., tarsus; SGI., salivary gland; SD., salivary duct; SG., sub- 
oesophageal ganglion; Ph., pharynx; S., stomodasum or fore intestine; M., mesen- 
teron or mid intestine; P., proctodaeum or hind intestine. 

In addition there is in the head an internal chitinous skeleton 
called the tentorium, which acts as a supporting structure. It varies 
in form in different insects but consists essentially of a central plate 
and two pairs of arms connecting with the skull. (The tentorium 
may be isolated by boiling the head in a 5 per cent, solution of caustic 
potash for ten minutes.) 

Mouth-parts. — In general there are three types of mouth-parts: 
mandihulate, present in the generalized orders and in the Orthoptera, 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 




Pig. 2. Fig. 3. 

Pig. 2. — Cephalic view of the head of cricket, a., Antenna; e., compound eye; 
E., epicranium; o.L, lateral ocellus; a.m., median ocellus; e.s., sutures of the epi- 
cranium; G., gena; Cp., C.a., clypeus; L., labrum; Md., mandible; p.m., maxillary 
palpus; p.l., labial palpus. 

Pig. 3, — Caudal view of head of cricket. E., Epicranium; O., occiput; F.P., 
occipital foramen; P.G., postgena; SM., submentum; M., mentum; gl., glossa; pgl., 
paraglossa; pg., palpiger; pi., labial palpus; C.i, C.2., cardo, pf., palpifer; g., galea; 
s., stipes; /., lacinia; p.m., maxillary palpus; md., mandible. 




Pig. 4. — Labrum and clypeus of cricket. 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



Ephemerida, and Coleoptera; suctorial ^ present in the Hemiptera, 
Lepidoptera and Diptera; and mandibulate-suctorial in the Hymen- 
optera. The mouth-parts with the exception of the labrum are true 
appendages of the head segments, and in the embryo arise in exactly 
the same way as the legs and antennae. 

Mandibulate Mouth-parts. — The mouth-parts of biting insects 
consist of: the labrum or upper lip attached to the clypeus (Figs. 
2 and 4) ; a pair of mandibles, simple and unjoin ted, articulated to the 
gence; a pair of maxillcB, each made up of a basal one-, or two-jointed 





Pig. 5. Fig. 6. 

Fig. 5. — Mandible of cricket. A, Cephalic view; B, caudal view; mh., mem- 
brane; mc.i, mc.2, adt., adductor muscles; abt., abductor muscles. 

Fig. 6. — Maxilla of cricket. C.i, C.2, Cardo; Mb.2, base of maxilla; pf., pal- 
pifer; St., stipes; p.m., maxillary palpus; g., galea; /., lacinia. 

hinge segment, the cardo, a central segment the stipes which bears the 
palpifer to which the typically five-jointed palpus is attached, and two 
distal lobes the outer of which is termed the galea and the inner the 
lacinia (Fig. 6). The labium or lower lip, composed of a broad basal 
part, the submentum, joined to the gula, a mentum or central portion, 
a pair of jointed palpi attached to the mentum by means of a small 
sclerite, the palpiger, and a median part which may be simple or 
slightly bilobed in which case it is termed the ligula, or it may consist 



6 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

of a distinct pair of inner and outer lobes termed respectively the 
glosscB and paraglossce (Figs. 3 and 7). A comparison of Figs. 6 and 7 
will show a perfect homology between the segments of the maxillae 
and of the labium. The hypopharynx or tongue united to the base 
of the labium; and the epipharynx under the labrum and clypeus 
bearing teeth, tubercles or bristles (Figs. 8 and 9). 
These parts differ greatly in the different orders. 
Suctorial Mouth-parts. — The suctorial mouth-parts of flies, bugs, 
moths and other insects have been evolved from the primitive mandibu- 
late type. In some forms such as the squash bug and mosquito all 
of the mouth-parts are present and it is comparatively easy to identify 

them with the corresponding append- 
ages of the biting insects. In other 
forms, however, the house-fly for ex- 
^pg^f ample, some of the mouth-parts are 
missing or fused with others, and it is 





Fig. 7. Fig. 8. 

Fig. 7. — Labium of cricket, hyp., Hypopharynx; gl., glossa; pgl., paraglossa; 
pl., labial palpus; pg., palpiger; m., mentum; sm., submentum. 
Fig. 8. — The labrum-epipharynx of cricket. 



more difficult to determine their homology. The following descrip- 
tions will illustrate the typical arrangements in the three chief purely 
suctorial orders of insects. Three types occur in the Diptera — the 
piercing type, with all the mouth-parts present, e.g., the female horse 
fly and mosquito; the piercing type with some of the mouth-parts 
missing or fused, e.g., the horn flies and stable flies, and the non- 
piercing type such as the house-fly and blow flies in which the beak 
is used for rasping and sucking. 

Mouth-parts of the Horse Fly (Tabanid). — The mouth-parts of the 
female are composed of six blades loosely ensheathed in the labium 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 7 

which is the conspicuous median portion terminating in a large labellum 
(Fig. lo). The mandibles are flat and sword-hke; the maxillae are 
narrower, but with broad conspicuous palpi; the hypo pharynx and 
labrum-epipharynx are also narrow and lancet-like. 



ad.md. 




Fig. 9.— Front of head of Gryllus pennsylvanicus with face and vertex renioved. 

Upper Figure.— £^jc., Epicranium; Ad., prd.. Id., dilator muscles of the pharynx; 
Md., mandible; Ph., pharynx. ,. 

Lower Figure.— Longitudinal dorsoventral section through the head ot L^ryUus 
pennsylvanicus. prd., prd. 2, prd.3, pstd., Vd., Dilators of the pharynx; Oc, ocellus; 
Ad.md., adductor of the mandible; Dep.hyp., depressor of the hypopharynx; Hyp., 
hypopharynx; r.hyp., retractor of the hypopharynx; ap.lb., apodeme of the labium; 
r.hyp., retractor of the hypopharynx; fl.st., flexor of the stipes; T.C., central plate 
of the tentorium. 



Mouth-parts of Mosquito.— Tht mouth-parts are similar in number 
to those of the horse fly but they are more bristle-like (Fig. 11). 

Mouth-parts of the House-fly.— When the head of a living house-fly is 
pinched between the thumb and finger the mouth-parts are protruded 
to their full length. They constitute a soft "proboscis" enlarged at 



8 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



the tip into a pair of soft cushion-like lobes, the oral lobes or labella 
(Fig. 12). The under sides of these lobes are traversed by a large 
number of open channels, the pseudo-trachecB, which open into the mouth 
situated near the middle; the greater portion of this proboscis is the 
modified labium. Lying above the grooved labium is the small spade- 
like labrum which may be raised by a pin. Near the base of the probos- 
cis and above the labrum are two small lobes, the maxillary palpi, the 
maxillae being fused with the fleshy base of the labium. 





Fig. 10. — Head and mouth-parts of a horse-fly (Tabanus). The maximum 
number of parts is retained, but the piercing structures are distinctly blade-Hke. 
Dipteron type, second subtype. A, Side view of head showing: i, antenna (brachy- 
cerous); 2, compound eye; 3, labium; 4, labella; 5, maxillary palpus; B, piercing 
structures exposed, labium removed; 6, mandibles; 7, maxillae; 8, hypopharynx; 9, 
labrum-epipharynx. (After Herms.) 

Mouth-parts of the Stable Fly. — The proboscis is awl-shaped and is 
adapted for both piercing and sucking (Fig. 13). It projects forward 
horizontally and has a prominent elbow. The labella are small and 
are provided with cutting and adhesive structures. Lying above and 
within the folds of the proboscis or labium are two unequal, sharp heavy 
bristles, the larger representing the labrum and the smaller the hypo- 
pharynx. The maxillary palpi are not so large as those of the house- 
fly. The palpi of the Horn Fly are longer and more flattened, and 
the proboscis is plumper and not thrown so far forward. 

Mouth-parts of the Squash Bug. — The mandibles and maxillae are 
reduced to needle-like structures, the two innermost (the maxillae) are 
united to form a piercing tube. The needles fit in the groove of the 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 9 

jointed beak, the modified labium. The labrum closes the base of the 
groove (Fig. 14). 



I li h m 




Pig. II. — Mouth-parts of female mosquito (Culex pipiens). A, Dorsal aspect; 
B, transverse section; C, extremity of maxilla; D, extremity of labrum-epi- 
pharynx; a., antenna; e., compound eye; h., hypopharynx; I., labrum-epipharynx; 
/*., labium; m., mandible; mx., maxilla; p., maxillary palpus. {After Folsom and 
Dimmock.) 




Fig. 12. — Mouth-parts of the house-fly (Musca domestica). lb., Labrum; tnx.p., 
maxillary palpi; li., labium; la., labellum. {After Kellogg.) 

Mouth-parts of the Butterfly. — The long sucking tube is composed of 
the two maxillae joined together, while the other mouth-parts are 
rudimentary (Fig. 15). 



lO 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Mandibulate-suctorial Mouth-parts. — Among the Hymenoptera we 
find a combination of the two types — well-developed biting mandibles 
and a labium or hypopharynx fitted for sucking or lapping liquid food. 
In ants and sawflies the mandibles are more in evidence, while the bees 
and wasps have well-developed sucking apparatus. Ants use their 
mandibles for various purposes, including the comminution of food, 
building of nests, transportation of larvae, slaves, etc., and in attack and 
defence against their enemies; the hypopharynx is used in lapping liquid 
food. 




Setae 



Shealh, = labium 
*Setae,* Mandible and Moxti/ot- 



Pig. 13. Fig. 14. 

Fig. 13. — Side view of the head and mouth-parts of the stable fly (Stomoxys calci- 
irans). Stylets reduced in number and closely ensheathed by the labium, i, 
Antenna; 2, compound eye; 3, labium; 4, labella; 5, labrum; 6, hypopharynx; 7, 
maxillary palpi. {After Herms.) 

Fig. 14. — Beak of a hemipteron. {After Riley and Johannsen.) 

< .. 

Mouth-parts of the Honey Bee. — These consist of the labrum and 
epipharynx above with the short trowel-like mandibles on each side for 
moulding wax; the maxillce forming conspicuous lateral wings with the 
galea and lacinia fused into one piece, and the palpi minute (Fig. 16). 
The labium is the long portion on each side of the tongue and ends in a 
pair of palpi. The middle tongue is the hypopharynx ending in a small 
labellum. 

Antennae. — The antennae or feelers are sensory organs, and are very 
variable in structure. They carry the organs of touch, and probably 
those of smell and hearing in some cases. On the surface of some of the 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



II 



segments are fine hairs, connected below with nucleated nerve cells, 
which are believed to be tactile hairs. There are too in some cases pits 
or oval depressions, also connected with a nerve cell, which are thought 
to be gustatory organs. Other pits situated in patches at the lower end 
of the segments are beheved to be auditory organs. 

Eyes.— The eyes of insects are of three kinds: simple, compound and 
agglomerate. The simple eyes or ocelli appear externally as a single 
convex lens, and are borne by the most primitive insects such as the 
Collembola, all eyed larvae, and in the 
adults of most of the winged insects. In 
winged forms there are usually three, supple- 
mentary to the compound eyes, and borne 
on the vertex or on the front, arranged 
generally in a triangle. The agglomerate 
eye is a compound eye in which the facets 
are not fused but well separated from each 
other, e.g., male Coccids. 

Organs of Hearing.— Several kinds of 
auditory organs occur in insects and these 
are variously located. In locusts they are 
tympanic membranes, located on the base 
of the abdomen; in the katydids and 
crickets on the tibiae of the fore legs. In 
the mosquitoes and many other groups 
certain sensitive hairs on the antennae serve 
to take up and transmit sound waves. 

Organs of 

)cated— on the antennae in flesh bJscS.' ' (After Folsom.) 
flies, ants, bees and wasps, some moths and 

beetles; on the maxillary and labial palpi in Perla and Silpha; and 
on the cerci in the cockroach and some Orthoptera. 

Organs of Taste.— Taste organs are also variously located— on 
the hypopharynx in the honey bee, on the epipharynx of most biting 
insects, and on the maxillary palpi in wasps. 

All sense organs consist essentially of the following parts: (i) a 
nerve of the central nervous system communicating with (2) one or 
two modified hypodermal cells, and (3) external supporting or accessory 
structures such as setae, tubercles or pits. 




Fig. 15. — H e a d of a 
Smell. — These organs are butterfly {Vanessa). ^ a., An- 

variously located — on the antennae in flesh boscS' ' ^ ^^ ^^^^' ^' 



pro- 



12 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



;4!t|iiL 





Fig. i6. — Head and mouth-parts of the honey bee {Apis mellifera). Both types 
of mouth-parts well developed but the mandibles are used chiefly for portage and 
modeling (Hymenopteron type). A, Front view of the head showing: i, antennae; 
2, compound eyes; 3, simple eye; 4, labrum; 5, mandibles; 6, maxillae (lacinia); 7, 
labium (palpi only); 8, hypopharynx(?); B, mouth-parts removed to show the 
parts; 5, mandibles; 6, maxillae (lacinia); 7, labium (palpi only); 8, hypopharynx 
(?); 9, bouton; 10, maxillary palpus; 11, mentum; 12, submentum; 13, cardo; 14, 
stipes. {After Herms.) 




Fig. 17. — Section through the thorax of an insect. L., Leg; P., pleuron; 5., sternum; 

J"., tergum; W., wing. 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



13 



Special Organs of Sense. — ^The halter es of Diptera contain sensory 
organs, but their function has not yet been definitely ascertained. 




pron. 


\ 


6 




—^..Scz 


^^ ^ 


-^^^Sclz 




"^71 


-)N.\ 




v^ 


.5C.3 




s^^ /""V 


■Viz 






^ScU 


- — -^ 


5 


'P.5Cl. 

\ 



pron. 




Fig. 18. — Gryllus pennsylvanicus . A, Ventral view of thorax; B, dorsal view of 
thorax, distal portion of pronotum removed; C, lateral view of thorax and abdomen. 
Cox., C0X.2, Cox.z, First, second and third coxae; Stl., prosternellum; St.2, St. 3, 
meso- and meta- sternum; Pron., pronotum; Es.2, Es.3, meso- and meta-episternum; 
Em. 2, Ein.3, meso- and meta-epimeron; i, 2, 3, etc., abdominal tergites; i', 2', 3', 
etc., abdominal sternites; p., peritreme; 5., spiracle; sp., supra anal plate; C, cercus; 
Ovp., ovipositor; pi., pleuron; Sc.2, Sc.3, meso- and meta-scutum; Scl.2, Scl.3, 
meso- and meta-scutellum ; p.scL, postscutellum; W., W.2, wing bases. 

When deprived of halteres flies cannot maintain their equilibrium in the 
air. 



14 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



tb 



(b) Thorax. — The thorax is composed of three segments — the 
pro-, meso-, and metathorax, each having a pair of legs. The meso- 
thorax and metathorax bear wings. Each segment is divided into a 
dorsal part, the notum or tergum, a ventral part, the sternum, and 
two laterals, the pleura (Fig. 17). Each part is again divided by 
sutures into sclerites— the notum into prcescutum, 
scutum, scutellum and post-scutellum, and the pleuron 
into episternum and epimeron (Fig. 18). 

In most hymenopterous insects the first abdom- 
inal segment — ^the propodeiim or median segment 
— is fused with the thoracic mass, so that the petiole 
of such insects is not the first but the second abdom- 
inal segment. 

Legs. — Each leg is composed of the following 
parts: coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, and tarsus (Fig. 
19). The trochanter in certain Hymenoptera is 
made of two segments, while the tarsus in most in- 
sects is composed of several segments, the last bear- 
ing a pair of claws. In some insects, e.g., the Diptera, 
three appendages are borne between the claws, in 
which case the outer pair are termed pulvilli and the 
middle one the empodium. 

Wings. — The two pairs of wings are attached to 
the meso- and the metathorax. They are membran- 
ous expansions of the body wall with hollow thick- 
enings along certain lines called veins or nerves. 
These veins often branch and interlace, and the spaces 
between the veins are called cells. Much import- 
ance is attached in classification to the wing and its 
veins on account of the great variation not only in 
the orders and families but even in the genera of a 
family. 

Structurally the wings of insects may be grouped 

into three divisions: 

I . Where the fore and hind wings are of similar texture and more or 

less fan-like. Under this division fall the Dragon flies, in which both the 

size and form of the wings are very much alike. Butterflies, wasps, and 

bees have their hind wings smaller than the fore wings, while some of the 



d 



Fig. 19.— Leg 
of a beetle {Calo- 
soma calidum). 
c, Coxa; c/., claws; 
/., femur; i., spur; 
f.W.^, tarsal seg- 
ments; th., tibia; 
tr., trochanter. 
{After Folsom.) 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



15 



May flies and the males of scale insects have their hind wings very 
much reduced or entirely wanting. In the flies {Diptera) the hind 
wings are converted into halter es (balancers). 

2. Where the fore wings are either wholly or partially chitinized. 
Examples of such thickening of the wings occur among the grass- 
hoppers and crickets, the beetles 

and the heteropterous bugs. 

3. Where the hind and fore 
wings are strongly reduced or 
completely atrophied, as in the 
fleas {Siphonaptera) , bird-lice 
{Mallophaga) and sucking lice 
{Siphunculata) . 

Venation. — It has been found 
that the system of veins in the 
different orders of insects is 
fundamentally ahke, being de- 
rived from the primitive type 
fairly well seen in some stone- 
flies and some cockroaches. 
This fact becomes evident only 
when a comparison is made of 
the wings of the more general- 
ized members of the different 
orders, as specialization has 
greatly modified their structure 
in most genera. Comstock and 
Needham have shown by a 
study of the developing wings 

of nymphs and pup^ that the /^^- 20.— Several stages in the de- 
. . , , • T 1 • • velopment of the wmgs of a cabbage butter- 

prmcipal longitudmal vems m fly. {After Mercer.) 
the more generalized orders are 

formed about tracheae (Fig. 20). In the development of the wing 
these tracheae grow out into the wing-bud, and later the veins are 
formed about them. The cross veins, however, as a rule do not arise 
in this manner, as tracheae are apparently absent. In the course of 
development specialization has brought about changes in the venation, 
recognized, first, by the addition of veins through branching of the prin- 




i6 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



cipal veins as in many Neuropteroids and Orthopteroids; second, by the 
addition of cross veins; and third, by the reduction of the number of veins 

^ .§£L Sc2 




Fig, 21. 



i^iA Cu2 
3dA 2dA '^^^ 

-The hypothetical primitive type of wing venation. 

Needham.) 



(After Comstock and 



through coalescence of adjacent veins, or by the disappearance of veins, 
as in most moths, flies and hymenopters. The chief longitudinal veins 

are the costa (C), an unbranched vein on 
or near the front margin; the subcosta 
(Sc); the radius (R); the media (M); the 
cubitus (Cu); and the anal veins (A), 
typically three but often reduced to one 
or two. 

A knowledge of the different types of 
venation is very important in classifica- 
tion. The Comstock-Needham system of 
terminology is adopted in this Classbook, 
and students should consult the recent 
work of Professor Comstock — The Wings 
of Insects — for a full discussion of the 
general characteristics of the wings of the 
several orders of insects. 

Clothing of the Wings. — While the wings 
of many insects are naked, many are 
covered with fine setae, hairs, or scales. 
The coating of scales is the most distinc- 
tive feature of the wings of the Lepidop- 
tera. These scales are modified setae, 
being evaginations of greatly enlarged 
hypodermal cells. They are provided 
with ridges, these serving to increase their rigidity and their protec- 




FiG. 22. — Various forms of 
scales. A, E, Thysanuran 
(Machilis); B, beetle {Anthre- 
nus); C, butterfly {Pieris); D, 
moth {Limacodes). 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 1 7 

tive value (Fig. 22). In addition, the beautiful colors are due to 
the scales, and are produced (i) by the pigments present, (2) by the 
reflection, refraction or diffraction of light, or (3) by a combination 
of these causes. Scent glands, called androconia, are associated with 
the scales, mainly on the wings of males. 

(c) Abdomen. — The abdominal segments show a greater uniformity 
in form than do the thoracic segments, owing to the fact that the former 
are not specialized for the bearing of legs and wings. This uniformity 
is not merely external but extends to some of the internal organs, 
notably the muscular, respiratory and nervous systems. A greater 
differentiation and consequent difference from the other segments is 
usually found in the terminal segments which are modified to bear the 
genitalia and cerci, in the first segment in the Hymenoptera which has 
united closely with the thoracic mass, and in the petiole of the same 
insects which is greatly reduced in diameter and often nodulated (ants). 

Typically the abdomen consists of ten segments, but in some 
Orthoptera eleven have been found and twelve in a few embryos. In the 
adult insect it is often difficult to distinguish ten abdominal segments 
owing to the fusion or disappearance of certain of the segments, to the 
modification which the terminal segments undergo, or to the telescoping 
of these last within the other segments. Each segment is made up of a 
dorsal sclerite, the tergum, a ventral scleriie, the sternuniy and a pair of 
pleural membranes connecting the two. The first seven or eight 
abdominal segments usually bear a pair of spiracles each. Typically 
the anus opens in the tenth or last segment and the reproductive system 
between the eighth and ninth. 

Appendages of the Abdomen. — In the embryo the abdominal seg- 
ments bear paired appendages which are homodynamous with the legs 
and mouth-parts. These usually for the most part disappear on hatch- 
ing, but they persist as prolegs during the larval life of the Lepid- 
optera, Tenthredinidae and Mecoptera; in certain Thysanurans they 
persist as rudimentary abdominal appendages throughout the life of 
the insect. 

The cerci which are present in most of the more generalized orders 
and in the thysanuriform larvae are usually the appendages of the tenth 
abdominal segment. 

The gonapophyses or plates of the genitalia are the appendages of 
the seventh, eighth and ninth segments and are known respectively as 



i8 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



the ventral, inner and dorsal plates. The inner pair usually forms the 
ovipositor or the intromittent organ, and the outer pairs may form a 
sheath or claspers. 

The Genitalia. — A knowledge of the genitalia is of importance to 
the taxonomist because in certain families the separation of species 
is based largely on these structures. It is also of importance to the 
economic entomologist because it enables him to understand the 
method of egg deposition in injurious and beneficial insects and 
the poisonous action in certain forms in which the ovipositor has been 
modified to form a sting. 




9%a 

Fig. 23. — Abdomen of female house-fly, showing extended ovipositor, a., Anus; c, 
cercus; d.p., dorsal plates; v. p., ventral plate. 

There is no true ovipositor in the Neuropteroida, Coleoptera, 
Lepidoptera or Diptera, the vagina opening directly to the exterior 
(Fig. 2^. In some of these insects, however, a whip-like or tubular 
pseudo-ovipositor is formed by the last few segments of the abdomen 
(e.g.yCerambyx, Cecidomyia, Musca). 

A true ovipositor is developed in the Thysanura, Orthopteroida, 
Hemiptera and Hymenoptera (Fig. 24). In the Orthoptera the gona- 
pophyses are used for making holes in the ground or sHts in stems for 
the reception of the eggs. In the Hymenoptera there are various 
peculiar modifications of the ovipositor: Megarhyssa, one of the larger 
ichneumon flies, uses its long ovipositor as a drill, forcing it, in spite 
of its extreme slenderness, up to the hilt in the trunk of hardwood 
trees in order to deposit its eggs in the burrows of the horn-tail borer 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



19 



{Tremex columba); the saw flies have the inner plates united to form 
the egg channel, the upper plates form a sheath, while the lower have 
serrate edges and are wielded like a saw, making slits in leaf or stem 
for the deposition of the eggs. In the stinging hymenoptera the 
ovipositor is modified to form a sting; the upper valves of the honey 
bee are soft, forming a pair of palpi, the inner lobes form a sheath, 
and the ventral lobes are represented by a pair of barbed darts. The 
poison is of two kinds, one alkaline the other 
acid, and is secreted by glands within the 
abdomen. 

INTERNAL ANATOMY 

The internal anatomy of an insect may 
be discussed under the following heads: (a) 
muscular system; (b) respiratory system; 
(c) circulatory system; (d) intestinal or 
digestive system; (e) nervous system; (/) 
reproductive system (Fig. 25). 

(a) Muscular System. — The muscular 
system of insects is well developed. The 
muscles are attached to the inner surfaces 
of the exoskeleton. 

In the abdomen the arrangement of 
the muscles is the same in each segment, 
except at the extremity where special mus- 
cles exist for moving the ovipositor, the 
cerci or other terminal organs. In the 
sternum of each abdominal segment there 
are one or two sets of longitudinal muscles on each side of the nerve 
chain. These are the longitudinal sternals or ventral recti (Fig. 26). In 
the tergum also similar sets of muscles occur on each side of the dorsal 
vessel; these are the longitudinal tergals or dorsal recti. Between these 
longitudinal muscles and the integument are numerous f?&/i^we and trans- 
verse muscles, and these, with the longitudinal muscles, bring about the 
various turning, wriggling or telescoping movements of the abdomen. 
In each abdominal segment there are also two muscles which pass 
from the tergum to the sternum. These are the tergo-sternals which 




Fig. 24. — Sting and poison 
apparatus of honey bee. ag.. 
Accessory gland; p., palpus; 
pg., poison gland; r., reser- 
voir; s., sting. {After Krae- 
pelin.) 



20 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



bring about the contraction and expansion of the abdomen necessary 
for respiration. 

In the thorax of larval insects and of the wingless forms the arrange- 
ment of muscles follows the same general plan as in the abdomen, 
but the presence of the leg muscles makes it more complicated (Fig. 
27). In the winged insects, however, this primitive arrangement 
cannot be readily recognized owing to the presence of large wing muscles 
and also to the fact that the thoracic segments are very often fused 
together. The muscles which move the head originate in the prothorax 
and are inserted into the base of the head. Within the head are muscles 




Fig. 25. — Internal organs of the cricket {Gryllus pennsylvanicus) . AN., Anten- 
nal nerve; Oes., oesophagus; Br., brain; T., teutorium; Ao., aorta; 5., suspensorium 
of ovary; H., heart; Ov., right ovary; Col., colon; JR., rectum; A., anus; MT., Mal- 
pighian tubules; Od., oviduct; Op., ovipositor; BC, bursa copulatrix (copulatory 
pouch); Vag., vagina; RS., receptaculum seminalis; Mes., mesenteron; VC, con- 
nectives of ventral nerve chain; VG., ganglia of ventral nerve chain; S.GL, salivary 
glands; Lb.N., labial nerve; SG., subcesophageal ganglion; Md.N., mandibular nerve; 
SD., salivary duct; HP., hypopharynx; P., pharynx; Mx.N., maxillary nerve; LN., 
labial nerve; ON., optic nerve; C, crop; P., proventriculus; GC., gastric caeca. 

for the control of the mouth-parts and antennas. In the mandibulate 
insects the muscles which move the mandibles occupy the greater 
part of the head cavity. 

Mention should also be made of the alary muscles of the heart, 
the circular and longitudinal muscles of the digestive canal, and the 
spiracular muscles which bring about the closure of the spiracles during 
respiration. 

A muscle consists of a bundle of long fibres, each with several nuclei 
and a sheath, the sarcolemma. In most cases the fibres present a 
striated appearance due to the presence of alternate light and dark 
bands. 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 21 




hcrmin. 



Fig. 26.-^ Ventral surface- of larva of Sphida obliqua, showing arrangement of 
parts. AN., Antennal nerve; CL., clypeo-labral nerve; Al.c, alimentary canal; 
LG., lateral ganglion; tr., tracheal trunk; tr.lat., tergo-sternal muscles; v.r.maj., 
v.r.min., ventral longitudinal muscles; S.lig., suspensorium of testes; Test., testis; 
V.d., vas deferens; Sp., spiracle; T., thoracic ganglia; /, //, [II. etc. abdominal 
ganglia; o,l., op^Ung 'nto leg;Jr.y,, transverse nerve; BB., brain. 



2 2 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

(b) Respiratory System. — The exchange of gases in respiration 
is effected by means of a system of small tubes called trachecB which 
extend inward from the surface and branch to all parts of the body. 
The external openings, called spiracles, are situated on the sides of the 
thoracic and abdominal segments (Fig. 28). From each spiracle 
a short tube runs inward and connects with the trunk tube running 
along the side of the body. There are thus two main or trunk tracheal 
tubes, one on each side of the body. Each gives off three large branches 
to each segment, the upper, the middle, and the lower. Each of these 




Ext. Tib. 



FITib. TlTlhFl.Tars 
Ext. Tanii 



FI.C. 



Fig. 27. — Muscles of hind leg of Gryllus pennsylvanicus. Ext.F., Extensor of 
femur; Ext. Tib., extensor of tibia; Ext.Tar.i, extensor of first tarsal joint; Ext. Tar. 2, 
extensor of second tarsal joint; Ext.Tar.3, extensor of third tarsal joint; Fl.Tm.i, 
flexor of first tarsal joint; Fl.Tar.2, flexor of third tarsal joint; FI.C, flexor of claws; 
Ext.C, extensor of claws; Fl.F., flexor of femur; Fl.Tib., flexor of tibia. 

branches subdivides frequently so that every portion of the segment 
is entered. Moreover, these fine tubes anastomose to form a deli- 
cate network, and allow a continuous circulation of air to take place. 

In many insects, in addition, are large sac-like dilatations of the 
tracheas which serve as air reservoirs. 

Tracheae have a striated appearance due to the thickening of the 
chitinous wall into a compact elastic spiral, thus preventing the collapse 
of the tubes. Special respiratory devices are seen in aquatic insects. 
Nymphs of May-flies and Damsel-flies have lamellate tracheal-gills, 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



23 



nymphs of Stone-flies and Caddice- 
flies have filiform or cylindric tra- 
cheal-gills, larvae of Culex, Corethra, 
Simulium and Chironomus have 
blood- gills, while nymphs of Dragon 
Flies have inlernal tracheal-gills. 
Tracheal gills are outgrowths of the 
body wall with fine tracheal tubes, 
in which there occurs during res- 
piration an exchange of gases be- 
tween the air in the tubes and the 
water. They are usually external 
but in the nymphs of Dragon Fhes 
they are internal, being arranged 
in rows on the inner walls of a gill 
chamber in the posterior portion 
of the ahmentary canal. 

Blood-gills are outgrowths of the 
body wall in which the blood flows. 
The exchange of gases in respira- 
tion occurs between the blood in- 
side and the water outside. 

Structurally a trachea consists 
of a chitinous wall or intima as a 
lining membrane spirally thickened 
at regular intervals by elastic 
threads called tcenidia, and a cellu- 
lar wall of hypodermal cells, the 
pavement epithelium. 

{c) Circulatory System. — While 
there is a blood circulation in insects 
the only blood vessel is a dorsal 
tube lying just beneath the notum. 

The heart or posterior portion of Fig. 28. — Respiratory system of the 

, , , . , . 1 larva of the budmoth {Tmetocera ocel- 

the dorsal tube COntams a number ^^^^^ (insect opened along the median 

of ventricles or chambers, each with dorsal line.) C, tracheal commissure; 

- - , !_• I, n 4^U D., dorsal branch; H., supplying heart; 

a lateral valve which allows tne y., ventral branch; F^.. visceral branch. 

blood to flow in but not out. There 




24 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



are also valves between the chambers so that when the latter con- 
tract the blood is forced forward. The blood on leaving the ventri- 
cles passes into the aortic portion of the dorsal tube, toward the head, 
and thence flows into the body cavity bathing all the organs. The 
blood is usually colorless and consists of two portions— the watery 
serum and the white blood corpuscles. 

Fat-hodies.—ThQst are masses of fat-cells occupying a large part of 
the cavity of the body, and lying between the organs. At first the fat- 
cells are large and spherical, but they lose their structure to a large 
extent through breaking down. They contain nourishing albuminoid 
matter, besides uric acid and urates. Their exact function is not 




. m 




Pig. 28a. — Apparatus for closing the spiracular tracheae in a beetle (Lucanus). 
A, Trachea opened; B. closed; &., bow; bd., band; c. external cuticula; /., lever; m., 
muscle; s., spiracle; t., trachea. {After Judeich and Nitsche.) 

definitely known. Associated with the fat-bodies in the abdomen of 
larvce are large yellow cells called cenocytes which, according to Glaser, 
secrete an oxidizing enzyme. 

{d) Intestinal or Digestive System. — This system occupies the central 
portion of the body, and is divided into distinct regions with special 
functions (Fig. 29). The food passes from the mouth into the pharynx 
where it is subjected to the action of saliva secreted by the salivary 
glands. Thence it passes in the Orthoptera and Coleoptera through 
the oesophagus into the crop, a folded and membranous pouch, where 
the action of the saHva is completed. The partially digested food then 
passes into the gizzard or proventriculus, a muscular enlargement armed 
with teeth for the purpose of straining the contents before entering the 
true stomach or ventriculus. In many caterpillars the food passes 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 25 




Fig. 29. — Digestive canal of Gryllus pennsylvanicus. sd.. Salivary duct; Oes., 
oesophagus; Sg., salivary gland; C, crop; pv., pv.", proventriculus; gc, gastric caeca; 
m., mesenteron; Mv., valve between two divisions of the mesenteron; gl., digestive 
glands; il., ilium; u.d., duct of malpighian tubules; ut., malpighian tubules; Col., 
colon; rt., rectum; An., anus. 



26 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 




Fig. 30. — Dorsal view of ali- 
mentary canal of the larva of the 
budmoth (Tmetocera ocellana). 
Ph., Pharynx; Oes., oesophagus; 
SM., suspensory muscles; Tr., vis- 
ceral tracheae of left side; MT., 
Malpighian tubules; Mes., mesen- 
teron; Int., small intestine; In., 
intestinal nerve; R., rectum. 



directly into the stomach which is long. 
Further digestion occurs here through 
the action of secretions of the coecal tubes, 
often called the gastric coeca, which con- 
sist of glandular pouches emptying into 
the anterior end of the stomach. Most 
of the digested food is here absorbed 
and passes into the circulation. Pos- 
terior to the stomach is the intestine 
which consists of three parts — iletim, 
colon, and rectum. Into the ileum open 
the Malpighian tubes which are excretory 
in function, similar to the kidneys of 
higher animals. The undigested portions 
of food are expelled through the rectum 
and anus. 

Some variations may be noted. The 
oesophagus is long in those insects that 
suck their food, and short in herbivo- 
rous forms. In sucking insects the giz- 
zard may be absent, and the crop is often 
a side pocket of the oesophagus (Fig. 30). 
Structurally, the wall of the alimen- 
tary canal consists of: 

1. An epithelial layer of cells which 
secrete the intima or lining layer. 

2. The delicate basement membrane. 

3. Circular muscles. 

4. Longitudinal muscles, which aid in 
constricting and enlarging the canal 

(Fig. 31)- 

From an embryological pomt of view 

the ahmentary tract consists of three 

primary regions: 

1. The Stomodceum, embracing the 
fore part as far as the stomach. 

2. The Mesenteron, or mid-intestine 
embracing the stomach, and 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



27 




m.d 



Fig. 31. — Sections through the proventriculus of Gryllus pennsylvanicus. (All 
greatly enlarged.) i. Longitudinal section through the median denticles. 2. 
Transverse section passing through two folds of the anterior division of the proven- 
triculus. 3. Surface view of a portion of one of the dental folds showing the chi- 
tinous partition and four of the transverse rows of teeth. 4. Transverse section 
of proventriculus passing through the median denticles. 5. Transverse section of 
fold cut in the region of the lateral denticles. 6. Lateral view of two adjacent inner 
barbated lobes, br.. Bristles of anterior division of proventriculus; ch.p., chitinous 
partition between dental folds; cm., circular compressing muscles; c.v., cardiac 
valve; ep., epithelium; i.bl., inner barbated lobes; in., intima; l.d., lateral denticle; 
l.t., lateral tooth; m.d., median denticles; ni.t., median tooth; o.b.l., outer barbated 
lobes; r.m., relaxing muscle. 



28 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

3. The Proctodoeiim, embracing the portion posterior to the stomach. 
The stomodoeum and proctodoeum are ectodermal in origin while the 
mesenteron is probably entodermal. 

{e) Nervous System. — The nervous system of insects consists 
essentially of a series of ganglia joined by a double nerve-cord lying 
along the ventral surface of the body. Each primitive segment had a 
double ganglion, but in most insects fusion of ganglia occurs in the head, 
the thorax, the anterior and the posterior portions of the abdomen. 
Great variations occur even in the same order. The largest ganglion 
is in the head, and is the result of the fusion of three pairs. It forms 
the hrain or supra-ossophageal ganglion, lying above the oesophagus. 
There is also another large ganglion, the suh-oesophageal, lying below the 
oesophagus, and connected with the brain by a double nerve-cord about 
the oesophagus, the oesophageal nerve collar or commissure. It also repre- 
sents the fusion of three pairs of ganglia. 

From the brain nerves are given off to the antennae, eyes, and 
labrum. The sub- oesophageal ganglion controls the mouth-parts. 
From the ganglia in the thorax and abdomen nerves supply the various 
segments and control their movements and activities (Fig. 26). 

In addition there is the Sympathetic nerve system which mainly lies 
along the dorsal line of the alimentary canal. It consists of a recurrent 
nerve arising from 2i frontal ganglion and ending in a stomachic ganglion. 
Two pairs of lateral ganglia are connected with the recurrent nerve and 
supply nerves to the dorsal vessel and the tracheae of the head. A 
ventral system lies in the main nerve cord and activates the spiracles. 

Nerve-cord and Ganglia. — The nerve-cord consists of an axis-cylinder 
of fibrillae and a sheath. It is concerned with the transmission of 
impulses and stimuli. The ganglion is a centre for the regulation of 
nutrition. It consists of a dense cortical layer of ganglionic cells with 
large nuclei, a clear medulla from which nerve fibrillae originate, and a 
nerve sheath. 

(/) Reproductive System. — In all insects the sexes are distinct. 
The sexual organs are situated in the abdomen and consist in the 
female of a pair of ovaries and a pair of oviducts opening into the vagina 
and frequently externally by an ovipositor, and in the male of a 
pair of testes and a pair of seminal ducts {vasa deferentia) opening into 
the ejaculatory duct and externally by an intromittent organ. The 
external opening lies between the eighth and ninth segments of the ab- 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



29 



domen — never in the last. In most insects there is in the female a 
seminal receptacle, a dorsal pouch of the vagina, and in the male a 
seminal vesicle, a dilated portion of the vas deferens. The ova are 
formed in the ovarian tubes in different stages of growth, the largest 
and oldest being nearest the oviduct. The spermatozoa arise in the 



-susp. 








Fig. 32. Fig. 33. 

Pig. 32. — Male reproductive organs of Gryllus pennsylvaniciis. T., Testis; Susp., 
suspensorium of testis; vd., vas deferens; uhr., u.maj., accessory glands on surface 
of seminal vesicle; ed., ejaculatory duct; sp.c, spermatophore cup; int., intromittent 
organ or penis. 

Fig. 33. — Female reproductive organs of Gryllus pennsylvanicus. Susp., Sus- 
pensorium of ovaries; O., ovaries; ov., ovarian eggs; od., oviduct; C, cercus; r.s., 
seminal receptacle; d., duct of seminal receptacle; vag., vagina; be, copulatory 
pouch; Ovp., ovipositor. 

follicles of the testes. There are also usually accessory glands which 
secrete mucus that envelopes the spermatozoa and ova (Figs. 32 and 

33)- 

Parthenogenesis, or reproduction without fertiHzation, occurs in 

many insects — in aphids, Cynips, Lasius (Ant), and some Coccids. 



30 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Several generations of females only which bring forth living young 
may occur, but at intervals males appear and fertilized eggs are laid. 

In some species of the Cecidomyiidae the young are produced by 
larvae. Such a method is called pcedogenesis. After several genera- 
tions, however, the last larvas pupate and form normal male and female 
flies. Examples are Tanytarsus dissimilis and Miastor americana 
(Fig. 2,7,a), 

Another method of asexual reproduction, called polyembryony 
occurs in certain parasitic insects, e.g., Polygnotus, belonging to the 
Hymenoptera. Each egg produces many embryos, instead of one, 
which develop into as many adult insects of the same sex. 




Pig. 33a. — Young paedogenetic larvae of Miastor in the body of the mother larva. 
Greatly enlarged. (After Pagenstecher from Folsom.) 



The Development of Insects 

All insects that reach maturity pass through two distinct stages 
of development — the embryonic changes within the egg, and the 
changes after leaving the egg until the adult condition is reached. 
The growth of the embryo within the egg progresses from the seg- 
mentation of the ovum to the formation of the blastoderm with its 
ventral plate and germinal groove, and the gradual growth of the 
ectoderm, mesoderm and entoderm, from which layers the various 
organs of the body arise. 

{a) Embryology. — The egg or ovum is a single cell containing — 
(i) The nucleus or germinal vesicle. (2) The yolk, or nutritive material. 
(3) The cytoplasm. (4) The cell wall or vitelline membrane. (5) 
The egg shell or chorion. (6) The micropyle or opening in the chorion 
to admit the spermatoza (Fig. 34). 

When the sperm nucleus unites with the nucleus of the egg, and 
forms a segmentation nucleus, fertilization is accomplished. 

By division of the segmentation nucleus a large number of nuclei 
are formed many migrating outward toward the margin of the egg. 
There a layer of cells internal to the yolk membrane called the blasto- 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



31 



derm is finally produced. This stage of the embryo is known as the 
blastula. 




^-Ase. 



Pig. 34. — Formation of the blastoderm and the germ band. Fk., Cleavage nuclei; 
BL, blastoderm; Kst., germ band. {After Escherich.) '\ 

The blastoderm thickens by cell division in one region forming 
the primitive streak or germ hand which presents in surface view an oval 
or elongated area along the ventral face of the egg. Soon a groove 




Fig. 35. — Diagrammatic sagittal sections to illustrate invagination of germ band 
in Calopteryx. a., Anterior pole; ac , amnion cavity; am., amnion; h., blastoderm; 
d., dorsal; g., germ band; h., head end of germ band; p., posterior pole; s., serosa; v., 
ventral; y., yolk. (Folsom after Brandt.) 

appears in the centre of the germ band due to invagination of the 
blastoderm. The lips of the groove close over the invaginated portion, 
producing an outer layer, the ectoderm or ectoblast and the inner layer, 



3^ 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



the endoblast {meso-entoderm) . This stage of the embryo is known as 
the gastrula. 

Meanwhile the blastoderm is folding over the germ band from 
either side, producing an inner membrane — the amnion, and an outer 
membrane — the serosa (Fig. 35). 

Two types of germ bands may be noted. The overgrown type 
retains its original position (Fig. 36), and the blastoderm folds over 
the germ band from either side forming the two layers amnion and 
serosa. In the invaginated type, seen in aphids and Odonata (Fig. 37), 
the germ band invaginates into the egg so that its ventral surface 

faces the dorsal surface of the egg. 
At a later stage the embryo turns 
and regains its original position. 

The germ band shows early 
signs of segmentation, beginning 
first at the anterior end. An in- 
vagination of the ectoderm near 
the anterior end forms the stomo- 
dceum or fore gut, and a similar 
posterior invagination forms the 
proctodoeum or hind gut. The 
segmentation shows about 21 seg- 
ments, 6-7 to the head, 3 to the 
thorax, and 11-12 to the abdo- 
men. On each segment except 
the first and last a pair of tiny limbs (buds) are seen. 

Soon the germ band widens and closes over the yolk to form the 
dorsal wall. 

Before dorsal closure occurs the beginnings of the nerve-cord 
form in the median groove. This primitive nerve-cord is double, 
and a pair of swellings in each segment develop into the ganglia of 
the ventral system. 

The tracheae arise as invaginations of the ectoderm. 
The entoderm arises from the endoblast, the inner embryonic layer, 
as two cell masses situated at either end of the embryo. These masses 
grow backward and forward respectively, and unite to form the mid- 
gut {mesenteron). 

The rest of the inner layer forms the mesoderm from which arises 




Fig. 36.- 
membranes 
nion; Ect., 
Ser., serosa. 



—Formation of the embryonic 

—overgrown type. Am., am- 

ectoderm; Ent., entoderm; 

{After Korschelt and H eider.) 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



33 



the blood system, muscles, reproductive organs, fat-body, etc. The 
division of the mesoderm into two layers produces paired cavities in 
each segment — the coelomic pouches (Fig. 37). 

{b) Metamorphosis. — The various changes that occur after the 
hatching of the egg are comprised under 
the term metamorphosis. 

After the escape of the embryo from 
the egg the development may be (i) holo- 
metabolic, i.e., with complete metamorpho- 
sis, the insect passing through two distinct 
phases, larva and pupa, before assuming 
the adult form; (2) heterometabolic, i.e., with 
incomplete metamorphosis, without a dis- 
tinct pupal stage, the larva being like the 
adult but without wings or mature repro- 
ductive organs; (3) ametabolic, i.e., without 
metamorphosis, the young being like the 
adult. Insects belonging to the orders 
Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera, 
Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Sipho- 
naptera, and Hymenoptera are holome- 
tabolic; the Orthoptera, Platyptera, Pie- 
coptera, Odonata, Ephemerida, Thysan- 
optera, Homoptera and Hemiptera are 
heterometabolic; and the Thysanurans 
and Collembolans are ametabolic. Most 
insects are oviparous, but some like cer- 
tain scale insects and Sarcophagid^e are 
larviparous. 

Larval Stage. — In general two types 
of larvae are recognized: the thysanuriform 
and the eruciform. The former type is 
considered quite generalized and primitive 
in form, and is common among the hetero- 
metabola. The body is flattened, the legs and antennae are long, 
the caudal cerci are well-developed, and the mouth-parts are 
mandibulate. 




Pig. 37. — Embryo of ^Ecan- 
thus, ventral aspect, a. An- 
tenna; a.^-a.^, abdominal ap- 
pendages; e., end of abdomen; 
I., labrum; li., left fundament 
of labium; Ip., labial palpus; 
l.^-l.^, thoraciclegs; w., mandi- 
ble; mp., maxillary palpus; mx., 
maxilla; p., procephalic lobe; 
pr., proctodoeum. (From Fol- 
som after Ayers.) 



34 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



The eruciform type prevails among the holometabola. The body 
is cylindrical, and the legs, antennae and cerci are much reduced. 

Many transitional forms, however, occur, and it is believed that 
the eruciform type has been developed from the thysanuriform. 

Ecdysis or Moulting. — All larvae shed their outer skin (cuticula), 
at intervals to allow for growth. The number of moults varies in 
different insects, but is constant for the same species under the same 
conditions. 

In the Lepidoptera the larva is known as a caterpillar, and is char- 
acterized by the possession of three pairs of true legs, and usually 




Pig. 38. — Types of larvae, a. Grub of asparagus beetle; b, cutworm; c, cabbage 
root maggot; d, fall canker worm-; e, maggot of honey bee; /, spring canker worm; 
g, false caterpillar of saw fly; h — a, b, c, nymphs of locust; i — o, b, c, d, e, nymphs of 
squash bug. {After various authors.) 

five pairs of prolegs on the abdominal segments. In the Diptera and 
Hymenoptera the larva is a maggot, characterized by the absence of 
legs. In the group of Saw-flies of the Hymenoptera, however, the 
larvae are caterpillar-like, possessing three pairs of true legs and often 
seven or more pairs of prolegs. 

In the Coleoptera the larva is termed a grub, and has usually but 
three pairs of legs (Fig. 38). 

Classification of Larvae.— Escherich classifies larvae as follows: 
Primary Larvce. — Larvae like the adult, and without provisional larval organs 
— Thysanura, Mallophaga, Pedicidida, Orthoptera, Isoptera, Corrodentia. 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 35 

Secondary LarvcB. — ^Larvae like the adult, and with a few provisional larval organs 
— Ephemerida, Plecoptera, Cicadidce, Odonata, Coccida. 

Tertiary Larva. — ^Larvae unlike the adult and with numerous provisional larval 
organs — Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, etc. 
Classification of Tertiary LarvcB. 
A. Larvae without prolegs. 

B. Larvae with well-formed sternum. 

C. Larvae more or less strongly chitinized; thorax or at least the 
prothorax dijffering from the other segments quite noticeably, 
large or more strongly chitinized, or otherwise sculptured; head 
generally with lateral eye points. Examples: Rhaphidians 
Ant-lions, Carahidce, Dytiscidcs, Silphidce, Coccinellidce, Elateridce, 
ChrysomelidcB. 
CC. Larvae weakly chitinized, soft skinned, and mostly whitish, 
but with chitinized dark head; thorax dififering but little from 
the other segments. Examples: White Grubs, Stag Beetles, 
Dung Beetles. 
BB. Larvae with poorly developed or rudimentary sternum. Examples: 
Many Cerambycids, Sirex. 
BBB. Larvae with sternum wholly atrophied or undeveloped. 

C. Larvae with a head-capsule and typically formed mouth-parts. 
Examples: Bark Beetles, Snout Beetles, Bees, Wasps, Ants, 
Ichneumons, Midges. 
CC. Larvae without a head-capsule or well-formed mouth-parts. 
Examples: Most Diptera. 
AA. Larvae with prolegs. 

B. Larvae usually with five pairs of prolegs. Butterflies and Moths. 
BB. Larvae with more than five pairs of prolegs. Saw flies. 

Provisional Larval Organs. — Provisional larval organs are those 
which belong to the larva and not to the imago. According to Escher- 
ich such organs represent adaptations for special functions, so that the 
more numerous these organs are the greater the difference in mode of life 
and in appearance between the larva and imago. As the imago is 
older phylogenetically than the larva the larval organs have arisen in 
a secondary manner. 

''Secondary" larvae possess numerous imaginal characters, so that 
the form of the imago remains more or less evident. In "tertiary" 
larval forms the characters of the imago are so repressed by those of the 
larva that a new form unlike the imago results. 

Larval organization distinct from that of the imago may be observed: 
(i) in the amount of chitinization, the color and the armature of hairs, 
bristles, spines of the skin; (2) in the number of glands; (3) in the form 



36 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



and segmentation of the body; (4) in the development of feelers and 
mouth-parts, (5) in the number and development of organs of locomotion 
and (6) in the alimentary, tracheal and nervous systems. Examples 
can be readily found to illustrate the differences outlined above. 

Pupal Stage. — After a short period of rest the full-grown larva of 
holometabolic forms changes to a pupa within a pupal skin. Usually 
the outer skin is shed, but sometimes, as in the Diptera, the outer skin 
becomes a puparium. During the pupal stage not only are all the 






Fig. 39. — Types of pupae, i, Asparagus beetle (free); 2, puparium of cabbage 
root maggot (coarctate); 3, bud moth (obtect); 4, tobacco sphinx (obtect); 5, male 
of maple scale (free). 

external organs of the adult insect formed, but even the internal organs 
undergo profound changes. The organs break down and reform, and 
the structures are adapted to the new creature with its new mode of life. 

In most insects the pupa is quiescent but it is quite active in the 
CuUcidae and other families. There is but little difference, except 
the presence of rudimentary wings, between the larval and pupal 
stages of the insects belonging to the Hemiptera and the Orthoptera. 

Three types of pupae are recognized (Fig. 39): (i) obtect, where the 
appendages and body are closely united, as in Lepidoptera and some 
Coleoptera; (2) free, where the appendages are free, as in Neuroptera, 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OE INSECTS 



37 



Trichoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Nematoceran Dipera; and 
(3) coarctate in which the entire pupa is surrounded with a hardened 
skin, and the appendages are not outwardly visible, e.g., higher Diptera 
(Muscids, etc). 

Pupae are protected in different ways: (i) in puparia, (2) in earthen 
cells in the ground, (3) in a rude cocoon in wood or earth, (4) in silken 
cocoons, (5) in folded leaves, (6) as chrysaHds. Examples of the 
above types are everywhere about us. 

Internal Changes. — In the heterometabola the internal changes are 
as direct as the external changes. In the holometabola, however, some 





Pig. 40. — Stages in the hypermetamorphosis of Epicauta. A, Triungulin; B, 
carabidoid stage of second larva; C, ultimate stage Jof second larva; D, coarctate 
larva; E, pupa; F, imago. E is species cinerea; the others are vittata. All enlarged 
except F. (After Riley, from Trans. St. Louis Acad. Science.) 

of the larval organs are reconstructed into imaginal or adult tissues. 
The imaginal organs arise from embryonal tissues (the imaginal buds) 
which for the most part remain practically dormant in the larval stage; 
in the pupal stage the purely larval organs disappear and the imaginal 
organs continue their development. Histolysis is the term used to ex- 
press the destruction of larval tissue by leucocytes, and histogenesis 
for the construction of imaginal tissues. 

Imaginal Buds. — The reproductive organs, the dorsal vessel, and 
the nervous system gradually mature, but many of the organs develop 



38 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

from "buds" in the larva. In the caterpillar, for example, from the 
inner skin or hypodermis arise buds which develop into the wings 
and legs of the butterfly. In a midge or fly the head with the eyes, 
feelers, and jaws, are developed by an inpushing of the skin. The food- 
canal, glands, and air-tubes of a moth or a bee arise from imaginal 
buds. 

Imago or Adult Stage. — The pupa transforms into the imago or 
adult insect. On the splitting of the pupal case the full-grown perfect 
insect emerges. 

(c) Hypermetamorphosis. — With some insects more than two 
intermediate stages may be noted in metamorphosis. In Meloe the 
young larva {triungulin) is thysanurif orm ; later it resembles a lamel- 
licorn larva, being cylindrical, fleshy, and less active (the scarahceidoid 
stage), then a pseudo-pupa (the coarctate stage), and later a legless 
cruciform larva. In Epicauta also triungulate, carabidoid, scara- 
hceidoid and coarctate or pseudo-pupa stages occur (Fig. 40). In 
Flatygasier, a proctotrypid, the following supplementary larval stages 
are observed: (i) the cyclops, (2) the oval, and (3) the elliptical. 

Losses Due to Insects 

While everyone will acknowledge the fact that damage is done by 
insects, the enormity of the losses is not generally recognized. How- 
ever, fairly reliable data covering such losses for several decades 
in the United States are available in State and Federal records. 

Every person admits large losses due to such pests as Potato Beetle, 
Codling Moth, San Jose Scale, Tent-caterpillar, Cattle Horn Fly, 
and Grasshoppers, but later pages will show many other injurious 
forms that remain practically unobserved by the average person, on 
account of their small size, or their underground or boring habits. 
The damage they do is often attributed to other causes, and frequently 
reports are unreliable, unless corroborated by competent observers. 

The following estimate is based on statistics prepared by experts 
and pubUshed in the Year Book, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
The loss on farm products, such as cereals, hay and forage, cotton, to- 
bacco, truck crops, sugars, fruits, farm forests, miscellaneous crops 
and animal products, valued at 8370 millions of dollars in 1909, is 
greater than to per cent, for there is a loss of 972 millions, not includ- 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 39 

ing those in connection with natural forests and forest products, and 
products in storage, which would make a probable total loss of over 
one billion dollars. The losses are estimated at $1,182,000,000 for 
1915, and $1,400,000,000 for 1917 (J. Ec. Ent., Feb., 1918). 

Estimates of the losses inflicted by insect pests on the farm products 
of Canada are mainly based on similar ones for the United States. 
At the present time it is difficult to form a reliable estimate of average 
annual losses due to insects from Canadian records. In some of the 
older provinces fairly complete records covering a series of years 
are available, but in the newer provinces the records are incomplete. 

Estimates have been made of the losses from some of the more 
serious pests that occasionally cause great damage, such as the Hessian 
Fly and the Pea Weevil. In Ontario the loss from the Hessian Fly 
in each of the years 1900 and 1901 was about two and one-half miUion 
dollars, and from the Pea Weevil in 1902 over two millions. 

If, however, the percentage loss in the United States, viz., 10 per 
cent, be taken as a fair basis for insect loss in Canada it can be readily 
reckoned that the total loss every year in that country exceeds 100 
millions of dollars. 

Beneficial Insects 

While the damage done by insects is enormous it must not be sup- 
posed that all insects are injurious. As a matter of fact there are more 
insects that are either beneficial or non-injurious than there are in- 
jurious forms. Man owes much to the beneficial insects for their good 
service in keeping the injurious forms in check. 

The fact that most plants with colored flowers are largely dependent 
upon the visits of insects for their fertilization and the setting of their 
fruit should make it quite evident that insects play a most important 
part in the economy of nature, and are no mean things after all. Let 
one reflect for a moment on the loss to the world if the blossoms of apple, 
plum, peach, grape, strawberry and raspberry among fruits were not 
fertihzed by bees and wasps; if the clovers were not visited by 
bees, and if the hundreds of beautiful wild flowers of the fields and 
meadows were allowed to die without setting seeds. 

In addition, one should not forget the part played by scavenger 
and carrion insects that feed upon dead and decaying organic matter. 
They help to make our surroundings purer and cleaner. Besides, 



40 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

"insects constitute the most important portion of the food of adult 
fresh water fishes, furnishing 40 per cent, of their food," according 
to Dr. Forbes, of lUinois. They also furnish food for most of our birds, 
and this food may consist of many noxious forms. 

There are also many insects that are decidedly beneficial, inas- 
much as they prey upon injurious forms or are parasitic upon them. 
At the present time a great experiment is being conducted in Massa- 
chusetts for the suppression of the gypsy and brown-tail moths by the 
importation of certain parasitic insects from Europe and Japan 
(see Part IV). From an economic point of view it is important for 
us to know the beneficial forms so that we may not unwittingly destroy 
them. Few persons, perhaps, fully recognize the valuable work done 
by the modest lady-bird beetles in keeping plant-lice within bounds. 
Without their intervention it is quite probable that most plants would 
die from the attacks of the fast reproducing plant-lice. Ground-beetles 
are also important agents in the destruction of injurious larvae, and 
their value can hardly be estimated. 

Beneficial insects may, therefore, be classified into : 

{a) Those that prey, or are parasitic, upon injurious forms {en- 
tomophagous) such as lady-bird beetles, ground beetles, parasitic 
diptera and hymenoptera, etc. 

{h) Those that pollinate plants, such as bees, wasps, moths, etc. 

{c) Those that play the part of scavengers, feeding upon dead or 
decaying organic matter, such as carrion beetles, etc. 

{d) Those that serve as food for fresh-water fishes, birds, etc. 

{e) Those that secrete or elaborate substances of commercial 
value to man, such as honey-bee, lac insect, cochineal insect, silk- 
worm, etc. 

Berlese divides entomophagous insects into predatory and endopha- 
gous. Predatory insects are those which devour other insects and their 
eggs outside the maternal body; while endophagous insects are those 
which enter the body or eggs of their victim and destroy them. 

Some entomophagous insects feed exclusively on one species, while 
others feed on several species {polyphagous) . From the standpoint of 
efficiency in the destruction of injurious species Berlese arranges them 
in the following order: 

I. Those preying on a single species and having few enemies and 
adverse factors, e.g., Novius cardinalis, Prospaltella berlesei, etc. 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 4I 

2. Polyphagous endophagous species which are themselves sub- 
ject to severe competition and meet with many adverse factors, e.g., 
Scutellista cyanea, etc. 

3. Predators with special victims, e.g., many lady-birds. 

4. Polyphagous predatory species; Calosoma, 
Entomophagous insects include members of the Coleoptera, Hymen- 

optera, Diptera, Hemiptera and Neuroptera. The coleopterous mem- 
bers are the lady-bird beetles, murky ground-beetles, and tiger-beetles. 

The lady-birds are small, convex, nearly hemispherical beetles, 
generally red or yellow and spotted. Their antennae or feelers are 
club-shaped, and their tarsi are apparently three-jointed. They feed 
upon small insects and the eggs of larger species, and are specially 
valuable for keeping plant-lice in check. 

The larvae of lady-birds are quite active and hunt for their prey. 
Some bear spines, while others are protected by fine white down. 

Ground-beetles (Carabidce) are active forms that live on the surface 
of the ground. They are usually black, but some have bright colors. 
They hide under stones or boards in the day-time but leave their 
shelters at night. They destroy large numbers of caterpillars, such as 
cutworms, canker-worms, tent-caterpillars, and the grubs of curculio. 
The larvae feed underground on the larvae of leaf-feeding insects. 

The ground-beetles have thread-like antennae, five-jointed tarsi, 
and legs fitted for running. 

Tiger-beetles {Cicindelidce) are carnivorous insects, and are most 
active in the day time. Their activity, markings, and stealthy habits 
have given them their common name. In structure they are closely 
related to the ground-beetles, and like them have thread-like antennae 
and five- jointed tarsi. • 

The larvae of these beetles live in holes in the ground and prey upon 
unwary insects. They have large heads, immense jaws, long sprawling 
legs, and two prominent humps on the back. 

The Hymenoptera possess several very important beneficial forms, 
mostly parasites: 

Ichneumon-flies {I chneumonidce) vary greatly in size, and the females 
of some species possess a protruding ovipositor. A common ex- 
ample is Megarhyssa (Thalessa) a very long tailed ichneumon, which 
bores a hole in wood infested with pigeon Tremex borers and deposits an 
egg beside the larval Tremex (Fig. 41); other common ichneumons are: 



42 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Tragus, which parasitizes the chrysalids of Papilio; and Ophion, a 
form with a compressed body, which lives on the Polyphemus moth 
and yellow-necked caterpillar. 

The Braconids {Braconidce) are smaller and are also parasitic. The 
most common genera are Microgaster, whose cocoons are often found 
on the backs of sphinx and cabbage butterfly larvae; and Aphidius which 
parasitizes plant-lice. 

Chalcids or chalcis flies (Chalcididce) are minute metallic insects. 
One species, Pteromalus puparum, is a parasite of the chrysalids of the 




Fig. 41. — Female of Megarhyssa (Thalessa) ovipositing. 

cabbage butterfly. Another, Aphelinus, is parasitic on scale insects 
(see also p. 354). 

Proctotrypids are very minute parasitic hymenoptera often prey- 
ing upon the eggs of other insects. 

Besides these parasitic forms there are predaceous Hymenoptera, 
such as the mud-wasps, digger-wasps, wood-wasps, etc., that feed their 
larvae on insects. They fill the brood cells with caterpillars, grass- 
hoppers, plant-lice, or grubs of small beetles or flies. Sphecius makes 
use of cicadas as food for its young. 

Several families of the Diptera are either parasitic or predaceous. 
The two best known are the Tachinids and the Syrphids. 

Tachinids or tachina flies (Tachinidce) are bristly flies closely related 
to the ordinary house-flies. They parasitize many kinds of caterpillars 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



43 



and sawfly larvae, either by inserting eggs within the bodies of their 
victims or by allowing the victims to swallow the eggs that are deposited 
on leaves. 

Syrphids or flower flies {Syrphidce) lay their eggs in colonies of plant- 
lice which are devoured by the larvae. They are large, often bee-like 
in form. 

The Hemiptera include a few beneficial forms, mostly belonging 
to the assassin-bug family {Reduviidce). They are predaceous, suck- 
ing the blood of other insects. Sometimes higher animals, including 
man, are attacked. The following forms may be noted: 

Melanolestes picipes is a large black form, and Opsicoetus personatus, 
or masked bed-bug hunter, is black and 
over J^ inch long. 

The Stink Bug Family {Pentatomidce) 
also furnishes a few beneficial species, 
although a very large percentage of the 
species is injurious to plant life. Two 
common forms are: Podisiis spinosus 
(spined tree bug) destroys potato beetles 
and currant worms, and Perillus circum- 
cinctiis which appeared recently in large 
numbers in potato fields where it de- 
stroyed potato beetles (Fig. 42). 

The Damsel Bugs {Nabidce) prey upon 
leaf-hoppers. 

The Ambush Bugs (Phymatidce) are 
also predaceous, destroying large numbers of injurious insects. 

Among the Neuroptera are some important beneficial forms, 
known as aphis-lions and ant-lions. 

The adults of aphis-lions, also called lace-winged flies, are readily 
recognized by their delicate veined green wings. Their larvae are pre- 
daceous and destroy large numbers of plant-lice. Their mandibles 
are very long. The genus Chrysopa is the main one in the family. 

The adults of Ant-lions (Myrmeleonidce) have "long narrow delicate 
wings and a slender body." The larvae are very predaceous and possess 
enormous mandibles. They capture their prey by using pitfalls. 

Hyper parasitism. — It happens that many of the primary parasites 
are often infested with parasites which reduce very appreciably the 




Fig. 42. — Perillus circunt- 
cinctus, an enemy of the Colo- 
rado potato beetle. 



44 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

effectiveness of the primary. Frequently, however, these secondary 
forms are infested with tertiary parasites. 

In the control of injurious forms it is evident that primary parasites 
are beneficial, secondary harmful and tertiary beneficial, on the other 
hand, when beneficial insects are parasitized the primary are harmful, 
the secondary beneficial and the tertiary harmful. 

Insects and Birds 

When it is known that about two-thirds of the food of our common 
birds consists of insects, it becomes evident that the agency of birds 
in the control of insects is of the highest importance. The seasonal 
diet of the robin, bluebird, catbird, king-bird, flycatchers, chickadee, 
wren, swallow, woodpecker, cuckoo, night-hawk, warblers, oriole and 
many other birds has been carefully studied in recent years, with the 
resulting discovery that insects form in most cases their only food, and 
only at certain seasons are small fruits eaten. 

Birds are no doubt of special value to the farmer in nipping incipi- 
ent scourges in the bud on account of their ability to move rapidly from 
place to place in search of food, and on account of their varied character 
and habits. Especially is this true of our winter birds which search 
every cranny and nook for the hibernating forms of insects at a season 
when every form destroyed means in most cases the absence of hundreds 
or thousands of their progeny the following summer. 

An international treaty between Great Britain and the United 
States for the protection of migratory birds in the United States and 
Canada was signed in Washington in August, 1916. For many years the 
numbers of such birds had been decreasing to such an extent, through 
careless and indiscriminate slaughter, that the agricultural and forest 
crops of the two countries were in danger of suffering serious losses 
from insect depredations. It was deemed advisable, therefore, in 
the interests of the two countries to adopt a uniform system of bird 
protection, such as the treaty provides. The most important provision 
relates to close seasons, viz: (i) a close season on migratory game 
birds from March loth to September ist except for maritime shore 
birds when the close season is from February ist to August 15th; 

(2) an open season for three and one-half months for wild fowl; and 

(3) a close season throughout the year on insectivorous birds. 



structure, growth and economics of insects 45 

Inter-relations Between Insects and Plants 

The idea of inter-relations in Nature was first emphasized by Spren- 
gel, Darwin and Miiller, and later ecological studies reveal still more 
clearly how all Nature is linked together into a system, one part de- 
pendent upon another in an intricate web of life. Disturbances in one 
portion of the system are followed by disturbances in another. 
In this chapter reference is made to some of the relations be- 
tween insects and plants, between insects and birds, and between 
insects and their parasites. Numerous other relations might be 
mentioned but these are sufficient to show that a knowledge of these 
relations is an important part of the equipment of the economic 
entomologist who would deal successfully with the problems confronting 
him. 

In a region undisturbed by man the various parts of the system of 
Nature have practically reached a state of balance through the ceaseless 
action for long ages of the "struggle for existence." Plant struggles 
with plant, animal with animal, and both with the environment. With 
the advent of man, however, the balance has been disturbed by the 
clearing of the forests, the cultivation and drainage of the land, the 
growing of crops, and the introduction of foreign plants and animals, 
since the new set of conditions will be favorable to the increase in num- 
bers of certain plants and animals, including insects, and unfavorable 
to others. This disturbance is often widespread. Favored insects 
will multiply rapidly on account of the abundant supply of food fur- 
nished by the cultivated crops, faster at first than their parasitic enemies ; 
and insectivorous animals such as snakes, toads, birds and predaceous 
insects will be deprived of the necessary shelter and hiding places by 
the clearing of the land, and become less abundant. 

On the other hand insects not favored, by the destruction of their 
food plants under the new conditions, will diminish in numbers, 
as will also their parasites, both sometimes no doubt to the verge of 
extinction. If, however, as is sometimes the case, conditions again 
favor the insect it will multiply very rapidly because the development 
of the parasite lags behind its host. Moreover, there is always a 
limit to the increase of the parasite, otherwise it would exterminate 
its host, and eventually itself. 

Many examples of inter-relationships among insects in addition 



46. ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

to that of parasite and host might be given. Certain ants attend 
certain plant-Hce with the object of feeding upon the nectar excreted — 
and not of feeding upon the plant-hce as some ignorantly suppose. 
Forbes has shown that the corn-root plant-louse is actually dependent 
upon the brown ant, Lasius niger americanus, for its existence, for its 
transfer to suitable winter quarters, to suitable weeds in early spring, 
and finally to the corn itself. 

In bumble-bees' nests one may often find a related bee, PsithyruSj 
living as a guest and fed by the worker bumble-bees. This guest bee 
is not content to live quietly in the nest; she often destroys the Bombus 
queen and gets ''the poor workers to rear her young instead of their 
own brothers and sisters" (Sladen). * 

Ants' nests or formicaries often contain a motley crew of other 
insects, among which are rove-beetles, pill-beetles, fly larvae, small 
crickets, thieving ants, and parasites — the majority being thieves and 
robbers. 

Again, no satisfactory explanation has yet been given for the 
preferences many insects exhibit in their feeding habits. As ex- 
amples, we are at a loss to know why in some districts the wheat 
midge does more damage to spring wheat than it does to fall wheat ; 
why the Hessian fly injures certain varieties of wheat more than 
others; why the grape blossom midge injures the early varieties of 
grapes most; why the Leconte and Kieffer pears are practically 
immune from the San Jose scale and the white peach scale; why 
the Northern Spy apple is not troubled with the woolly aphis; why 
the Red Dutch cabbages are free from the cabbage root maggot; 
why the spiny elm caterpillar and the European elm scale prefer the 
American elm to the imported English elm; why the European elm 
saw-fly and the elm leaf beetle prefer the European elm to the 
American; why the forest caterpillar attacks the sugar maple in 
preference to the soft maple; why the maple scale prefers the soft 
maple to the sugar maple; why the apple maggot is more injurious 
to sweet and sub-acid summer varieties than to fall and winter-acid 
varieties; why the brown mite is seldom seen in quince and apricot; 
and why the phylloxera is more injurious to the European vine than 
to the native American species., 

Long-continued observations show that there are ''all grades of 
association between plants and insects from most casual contact to 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 47 

mutual dependence, and that there are grades of fitness on both sides" 
(Needham, General Biology). Reference has aheady been made in the 
section deaHng with Beneficial Insects to the important part played 
by many insects in the fertilization of plants. To this end many 
beautiful adaptations occur among plants such as in legumes, iris, milk- 
weed, yucca, orchids, mints, figworts, honeysuckles, canna, Smyrna 
fig, etc., but it should be borne in mind that there has been also 'probably 
much adaptation on the part of the insects. 

Galls. — Another type of inter-relation is the galls seen on many 
plants, produced by certain insects belonging to the families Cecido- 
myiidcB, Trypetidce, Aphididce, Psyllidce, Cynipidce and Tenthredinidm. 
Mites (Acarina) also produce galls. Usually an egg is laid within the 
growing tissue and the larva excites the surrounding tissue to abnormal 
growth. The transformations occur within the gall, and the adult 
escapes to make new galls. 

Galls are of various forms, often characteristic of the insects pro- 
ducing them. The nutritive cells lying next to the contained larva 
contain both sugar and starch and appear to function as feeders for both 
the larva and the growing cells of the gall. 

Insectivorous Plants. — Certain plants such as the sundew, Venus' 
fly-trap, pitcher-plant and bladderwort entrap small insects and feed 
upon them. These plants secrete digestive fluids which convert the 
tissues of the captured insects into liquid food capable of being 
absorbed. 

Diseases of Insects. — Many insects are killed by the action of cer- 
tain fungi and bacteria. Such diseases are frequently epidemic, and 
attempts have been made to control insect infestations by the propaga- 
tion and distribution of artificial cultures. Probably the best known 
experiment of this nature was carried out by Dr. Snow and Dr. Forbes 
against the chinch bug in the middle States by the distribution of 
cultures of the fungus Sporotrichum glohuliferum. The result was only 
moderately successful, for it was found that the disease spreads rapidly 
in moist seasons, but not in dry ones when the chinch bugs are inju- 
rious. There is no doubt, however, that the fungus is an important 
factor in lessening the severity of the insect's attacks. 

In South Africa, Algeria and Argentina the locust has been con- 
trolled by the introduction of bacterial cultures of Coccohacillus 



48 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

acridiorum, but in other regions where the weather conditions are not 
so favorable this method has not met with success. 

In the southern States the San Jose scale is often attacked by 
SphcBrostilhe coccophila, but as a means of control artificial propagation 
of the disease on a large scale has not been successful. 

Tent-caterpillars, brown-tail and gipsy moth caterpillars are de- 
stroyed in large numbers by bacterial disease. 

Following is a list of the more important entomogenous fungi: 

Empusa musccB on flies, E. grylli on crickets, etc. and E, aphidis 
on plant-lice. Entomophthora aphidis on plant-lice, and E. sphcero- 
sperma on many caterpillars. Cordyceps militaris on larvae and pupae 
of white grubs, wireworms and some lepidopterous forms. Most of 
the conidial forms of Isaria and Sporotrichum belong to the ascus 
genus Cordyceps. 

Botrytis, Verticillium, Cladosporium, Mgerita and Fusarium attack 
many kinds of insects, especially scale insects, plant-Uce, white flies, 
and the chrysaUds of moths. 

Future investigations will probably lead to the better utilization 
of fungi in the control of many of the most noxious insects. 

Insects as Carriers of Plant Diseases 

Flea-beetles by eating holes in the leaves of potato permit the en- 
trance of the spores of Early Blight {Macrosporium solani) with conse- 
quent partial destruction of the leaves. It has also been shown fairly 
conclusively that certain aphids and other insects^ act as carriers of 
Twig Blight {Bacillus amylovorus) of apples and pears, that the 
beet leaf-hopper {Eutettix tenella) transmits to sugar beets the " Curly 
Leaf" disease, and it is now believed that the squash bug (Anasa 
tristis), the striped cucumber beetle {D. vittata), the 12-spotted cu- 
cumber beetle {D. 12-punctata), the cucumber flea-beetle {Epitrix 
cucumeris), the melon aphis {Aphis gossypii), and the 12-spotted 
lady-beetle {Epilachna borealis) frequently inoculate the stems of cucur- 
bits with the cucurbit wilt {Bacillus tracheiphilus). Again, the punc- 
tures made by the plum curculio in plum, cherry and peach permit 
entrance of the spores of the Brown Rot Disease {Sclerotinia fructigena) , 

^ Gossard mentions among others Aphis avence, Empoasca mali, Eccoptogaster 
rugulosuSy and Lygiis pratensis. "Any sucking insect can become a carrier, also any 
insect with the bark-burrowing habit." 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 49 

and the greenhouse white fly (Aleyrodes vapor ar tor um) often transmits 
the disease Cladosporium fulviim to tomatoes. 

Tree crickets {(Ecanthus) are said to be responsible for the inocula- 
tion of trees and shrubs with canker, of raspberries with the cane 
blight, and probably for the production of other diseases. 

Insects and Disease 

(Consult Handbook of Medical Entomology by Riley and Johannsen, and 
Medical and Veterinary Entomology by Herms.) 

During the last twenty years important discoveries have been made 
regarding the transmission of certain diseases by arthropods such 
as the mosquitoes, house-flies, stable-flies, gad-flies, tsetse-flies, fleas, 
bed-bugs, lice and ticks. 

Insects and arachnidans cause disease in one or more of the fol- 
lowing ways: by direct injection, that is by the introduction of a patho- 
genic organism into the circulation, as in the case of the malarial 
mosquito, the yellow fever mosquito, the sleeping-sickness flies, 
horse flies and others; by indirect infection, that is by infecting food, 
as in the case of the house-fly; by internal parasitism as in the case of 
warble flies and bots; by external parasitism as in the case of lice, 
fleas, bed-bugs and ticks"; and by the introduction of poisons as in the 
case of bees, wasps, kissing bugs and others. 

Brues and Sheppard have divided the diseases that are carried by 
insects into three groups: 

Group A. — Characteristically insect-borne diseases. 

Group B. — Often insect-borne diseases. 

Group C. — Possibly insect-borne diseases. 

Under Group A are included malarial fever, yellow fever, filariasis, 
sleeping sickness, typhus fever, bubonic plague, African tick-fever. 
Rocky Mountain spotted fever of man, and Nagana and Texas fever 
of horses and cattle. 

Under Group B. are included typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, 
diarrhoea, tuberculosis, septicaemia. 

Under Group C. are included anthrax, rabies, pellagra, hookworm, 

beriberi, black water and relapsing fever of man; and equine infectious 

anaemia. 
4 



so ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Anopheles Mosquito and Malaria: 

Malarial fever and ague were common a generation ago, and our 
fathers vaguely attributed the disease to the presence of swamps 
whose numbers have fortunately been greatly reduced by drainage. 

The story of the discovery of the causal organism and of its life- 
history in connection with the Anopheles mosquito is one of the in- 
teresting chapters in modern biological investigation. The organism 
belongs to the amoeboid Protozoa and was discovered by Laveran, 
a French army surgeon, in 1880. The part of Anopheles as a second 
or intermediate host of the malarial organism was worked out later 
by Doctors Manson and Ross. (A full account of the discovery will be 
found in Kellogg's "American Insects.") 

The malarial plasmodium on gaining access to the human body 
lives within a red blood-corpuscle and thrives at the expense of the 
haemoglobin. A characteristic excretory product in affected cells 
is the black granules of melanin. In 48 hours the plasmodium reaches 
maturity and divides into many spores, termed merozoites, which are 
set free in the blood. These soon enter new blood-corpuscles and 
reach maturity in 48 hours as before. This production of spores coin- 
cides with the characteristic "chill" of ague, and is followed by a fever 
when the spores enter the blood-corpuscles. As a result of the de- 
struction of the red blood-cells the patient becomes ancemic. Certain 
of these spores, however, make no attempt to enter new blood-corpuscles 
and may remain in the blood for an indefinite period. These are the 
gametes — the micro- and macro-gametes — which, if taken into the 
stomach of an Anopheles mosquito, will, however, undergo further 
development. The male or micro-gamete produces a number of 
whip- like threads or fiagellce, which are capable of uniting with the 
female or macro-gametes, producing vermicules or ookinetes. These 
penetrate into the wall of the stomach of the mosquito where they 
rest as cysts, forming little lumps on the outer surface. These cysts 
mature in about ten days and burst, liberating large numbers of 
sporo-blasts into the body cavity, whence they find their way to the 
salivary glands. When such an affected mosquito bites a human 
being these spores are injected into the blood and enter the red cor- 
puscles. It will be seen, therefore, that ordinarily the Anopheles 
mosquito is the only agency for the transmission of malaria to man 
(Fig. 43)- 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 5 1 







Fig. 43. — Life history of malaria parasite, Plasmodium prcBcox. i. Sporozoite, 
introduced by mosquito into human blood; the sporozoite becomes a schizont. 2. 
Young schizont, which enters a red blood corpuscle. 3. Young schizont in a red 
blood corpuscle. 4. Full-grown schizont, containing numerous granules of melanin. 
5. Nuclear division preparatory to sporulation. 6. Spores, or merozoites, derived 
from a single mother-cell. 7. Young macrogamete (female), derived from a mero- 
zoite and situated in a red blood corpuscle. 7a. Young microgametocyte (male) 
derived from a merozoite. 8. Full-grown macrogamete. 8a. Full-grown micro- 
gametocyte. In stages 8 and 8a the parasite is taken into the stomach of a mos- 
quito; or else remains in the human blood. 9. Mature macrogamete, capable of 
fertilization; the round black extruded object may probably be termed a "polar 



52 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Stegomyia Mosquito and Yellow Fever: 

The demonstration of the causal relation between the Stegomyia 
mosquito and yellow fever is another interesting story, and was worked 
out mainly by Major Walter Reed of the U. S. Army Medical Service 
in Cuba in 1900 and 1901. In his experimental camp Major Reed 
and his associates proved that yellow fever could not be transmitted 
by contact with yellow fever patients, but only by the bites of infected 
mosquitoes and by the artificial injection of diseased blood. The 
causal organism has not yet been discovered on account of its being a 
filterable virus. It is known, however, that a 12-day incubation 
period is required in Stegomyia before its bite becomes infectious to a 
second person. Moreover, the mosquito can obtain infected blood 
from a patient during only the first three days of his disease. 

Based on these facts, the control of yellow fever has become an 
easy matter. The patients are isolated as soon as the disease appears, 
and standing water in which Stegomyia might develop is treated with 
kerosene. Besides, all rooms in the building and adjacent buildings 
are fumigated, for the purpose of destroying living mosquitoes. 

Culex Mosquito and Filar iasis: 

The tropical disease, filariasis, is caused by a minute nematode 
worm, Filaria, which lives in the blood of man and certain species 
of Culex (C Jatigans). The worms escape from the mid-intestine of 
the mosquito into the muscular tissue where they grow for two or three 
weeks. They then migrate to other portions of the body and often 
collect at the base of the proboscis, whence they are carried into the 
human blood circulation. Sometimes the worms become three or 
four inches long and obstruct the lymphatic canals, causing elephan- 
tiasis, characterized by enormous swellings of the legs, arms and other 
parts of the body. 

body." ga. Mature microgametocyte, preparatory to forming microgametes. gh. 
Resting cell, bearing six flagellate microgametes (male). lo. Fertilization of a 
macrogamete by a motile microgamete. The macrogamete next becomes an ookin- 
ete. II. Ookinete, or wandering cell, which penetrates into the wall of the stomach 
of the mosquito. 12. Ookinete in the outer region of the wall of the stomach, i.e., 
next to the body cavity. 13. Young oocyst, derived from the ookinete. 14. Oocyst, 
containing sporoblasts, which are to develop into sporozoites. 15. Older oocyst. 
16. Mature oocyst, containing sporozoites, which are liberated into the body cavity 
of the mosquito and carried along in the blood of the insect. 17. Transverse section 
of salivary gland of an Anopheles mosquito, showing sporozoites of the malaria para- 
site in the gland cells surrounding the central canal. 

1-6 illustrate schizogony (asexual production of spores); 7-16, sporogony (sexual 
production of spores). {After Grassi and Leuckart, by permission of Dr. Carl Chun.) 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 53 

House-fly and Typhoid Fever: 

Much attention has been directed in recent years to the dangers of 
the house-fly {Musca domestica) and other flies as agents in the trans- 
mission of disease. All Public Health Departments now take cognizance 
of the house-fly and issue warnings against its presence about the home. 
Epidemics of typhoid and cholera in many cities, as well as the out- 
breaks during the Spanish- American war brought out the fact that the 
house-fly was largely responsible for the troubles. 

The habits of this insect are such as to make its presence dangerous. 
It breeds in filth, and as an adult fly it feeds on all kinds of decaying and 
fecal matter as well as the sweets and liquids of the dining table. 
Its feet and proboscis are admirably adapted for carrying those bacterial 
germs that cause typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, tubercu- 
losis, etc. Moreover, it has been shown that typhoid bacilli swallowed 
by the house-fly when it feeds on and crawls over contaminated sub- 
stances survive the passage of the alimentary canal, so that "fly- 
specks" may contain many active typhoid germs. 

It has been shown that several other species of flies that frequent 
houses may also convey typhoid bacilli. The "little house-fly" 
(Fannia canicularis), the Latrine-fly {Fannia scalaris), the blow-fly 
{Calliphora erythrocephala) , Muscina stahulans, the cluster-fly {Pol- 
lenia rudis), and the stable-fly {Stomoxys calcitrans) have all been found 
guilty and precautions should be taken to guard against their presence. 

The charges proven against the house-fly as an active agent in dis- 
seminating not only typhoid fever but also cholera, dysentery and tu- 
berculosis are overwhelming. This insect pest should, therefore, 
be banished from our midst. If we do not care for our own health 
we should at least protect the helpless children who are perhaps the 
greatest sufferers. 

(For further particulars the excellent works of Doctors Hewitt 
and Howard should be consulted.) 

Anthrax and Infantile Paralysis: 

The stable-fly {Stomoxys calcitrans), the horn-fly {Hcematohia 
serrata), gad-flies {Tabanus and Chrysops), and the black-fly (Simulium) 
have both piercing and sucking beaks and are true blood-suckers. As 
such they are liable to introduce virus into the human blood. Anthrax 
is a disease of many domesticated animals and of man; and it is 
believed that these blood-sucking flies are agents of transmission 



54 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

by inoculation forming malignant pustule; but the pulmonary and 
intestinal forms of the disease require other methods of infection. 

In the recent outbreaks of acute anterior poliomyeHtis or infantile 
paralysis in different parts of the United States and Canada the stable- 
fly was strongly suspected at first of being the transmitter of the causal 
organism. Later, however, in many experiments in which monkeys, 
rabbits and other rodents were inoculated by stable-flies caught in 
the wards of hospitals containing poliomyelitis patients, and flies that 
had fed on animals inoculated with the virus were allowed to feed upon 
healthy animals, no symptoms of the disease developed. Besides, 
the disease spread on some occasions in mid-winter when stable-flies 
could not be active agents. The present opinion is that insects play 
a subordinate role, if any, in spreading the disease and that it is trans- 
mitted by contact with infected persons. The causal organism has 
not yet been isolated, being filterable and ultra-microscopic like that 
of yellow fever. 

Tsetse-flies and Trypanosomiasis: 

Tsetse-flies {Glossina spp.) are not native to America, but belong 
to tropical and sub-tropical Africa. They are blood-sucking flies, 
closely related to stable-flies, and in recent years have been shown 
to be causally related to severe diseases of both man and domesticated 
animals. Dr. Bruce made the important discovery that nagana, a 
very fatal disease to horses, cattle, dogs and donkeys in South Africa, 
was produced by a trypanosome carried to the blood by the bites of 
tsetse-flies. These trypanosomes are flagellate protozoa, and when 
they occur in the blood of certain warm-blooded animals set up a dis- 
ease called trypanosomiasis. They are carried from one host to another 
by certain invertebrates, such as mosquitoes, lice, fleas, and especially 
by such blood-sucking flies as the tsetse-flies. 

The Nagana disease is caused by Trypanosoma brucei and the tsetse- 
flies mostly concerned are Glossina morsitans and G. pallidipes. 

In the Congo Basin of Central Africa the terrible "sleeping-sickness" 
disease carries off tens of thousands of natives every year. Doctors 
Forde and Dutton isolated the specific causal organism of this disease, 
which was named Trypanosoma gambiense, and Bruce and Navarro 
traced the organism to the bite of the tsetse-fly, Glossina palpalis. 
Folsom states : " In the first ^tage of the disease, marked by the appear- 
ance of trypanosomes in the blood, negroes show no symptoms as a rule. 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 55 

though whites are subject to fever. The symptoms may appear as 
early as four weeks after infection or as late as seven years. 

^'In the second stage trypanosomes appear in the cerebro-spinal 
fluid and in large numbers in the glands, those of the neck, axillae and 
groins becoming enlarged. There is tremor of the tongue and hands, 
drowsiness, emaciation and mental degeneration. The drowsiness 
passes into periods of lethargy which become gradually stronger until 
the patient becomes comatose and dies. Some victims do not sleep 
excessively but are lethargic and profoundly indifferent to all going 
on around them." 

Late investigations go to show "that Glossina morsitans may act 
as a host for a human trypanosome which is probably identical with 
T. gambiense." Probably also " that some of the vertebrates other than 
man may harbor T. gambiense and that there is a possibility of these 
things being transmitted to man" (Doane). 

With regard to the development of T. gambiense in Glossina palpalis 
it is known that "two days after biting an infected animal the fly 
becomes mcapable of mfectmg other animals and remains so for about 
22 to 28 days, when it again becomes infective and may remain so for 
at least 96 days. During the infection period the salivary glands sire 
found to be invaded with the type of the trypanosome that is found 
in the vertebrate blood" (Doane). 

Rat Fleas and Plague: 

Plague, known in three forms as bubonic, septicaemic and pneu- 
monic, is caused by Bacillus pestis which attacks rats, mice, cats, dogs 
and other animals. The disease is transmitted mainly by fleas, some- 
times by bed-bugs, and the wounds made by the bites allow entrance to 
plague bacilH. "Plague is primarily a disease of rats, an epidemic of 
plague in these animals having often been observed to precede as well 
as to accompany an epidemic among human beings." 

The recent outbreak of pneumonic plague in Manchuria showed an- 
other phase of infection. This disease is not dependent on fleas for 
its transmission, but it could be traced to an outbreak of plague in the 
tarabagans or marmots, a kind of squirrel. Dr. Cantlie says that Plague 
may develop or appear in the following stages: (i) as a disease in ani- 
mals; (2) as pestis minor conveyed by infected insects; (3) bubonic 
plague, sporadic cases, carried from animals to man by insects; (4) epi- 
demic bubonic plague carried from man to man by insects; and (5) 



56 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

pneumonic plague passing from man to man directly, or conveyed by 
insects. Dr. Kitasato is quoted as saying that the (Manchurian) 
pulmonary plague cannot spread through the air as the digestive 
tract is plague-proof, and that direct contact is necessary. 

Lice and Certain Diseases: 

Typhus fever is transmitted from man to man by the Body Louse 
{Pediculus vestimenti), and Beriberi probably by the Head Louse 
(Pediculus capitis). 

Ticks and Certain Fevers: 

Although ticks are not true insects yet they have been considered 
as coming under the field of the entomologist. In certain western 
states, viz., Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah and Nevada, the Rocky 
Mountain Spotted Fever occurs and is produced by the bites of ticks 
{Dermacentor venustus, et al.) which carry spirochaetes. The African 
tick-fever is carried by another tick {Ornithodoros moubata), the 
African Relapsing fever possibly by a tick, the African East Coast 
fever of cattle by ticks {Rhlpicephalus appendiculatus) and the Texan 
fever of cattle by a tick {Margaropiis annulatus) inoculating cattle 
with the protozoan spirochaete Babesia bovis, a fact observed by Dr. 
Theobald Smith. 

Other Diseases: 

The terrible "hookworm" disease of the South is probably carried 
by the common house-fly. The causal organism {Anchylo stoma 
duodenale) a round worm may also enter the skin from infected soil. 
Pellagra is transmitted, according to many authorities, by the bites of 
species of black-fiy {Simulium) or by the ingestion of mouldy corn. 
White grubs {Lachno sterna) are hosts for the thorn-headed worm 
{Echinorhynchus gigas) and food for swine which in turn becomes 
food for man. 

Leprosy, that most dreaded disease, is now believed to be trans- 
mitted by flies, fleas, mosquitoes and bed-bugs. Possibly also certain 
mites may be occasional carriers of the bacillus {B. leprce). 

It will be seen from this account that the insects concerned in the 
transmission of disease are of two kinds: those, like the mosquito which 
transmit malaria and filiariasis, which are essential hosts of the disease 
organisms, and those which transmit the disease mechanically. Any 
insect which habitually attacks man or which may enter the house or 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 57 

milking stable after having fed on human excreta is potentially a 
disease vector, so that we cannot too strongly emphasize the necessity 
of keeping all foods adequately screened and of preventing such insects 
as house-flies, blow-flies or mosquitoes from entering human dwellings. 

Besides carrying disease germs many insects may themselves cause 
disease in man. Many mites, hce and fleas cause dermatitis, scabies 
or ulcers in man. The larvae of many flies, notably the blue bottles, 
blow-flies, flesh flies and bot flies, cause intestinal, dermal, muscular, 
nasal or auricular myiasis in man. 

MacGregor in a recent paper (Bui. Ent. Res., Vol. viii, pp. 155-163) 
lists eighty organisms causing disease which may be transmitted by 
insects. 

Insect Behavior Toward Stimuli 

In recent years a large mass of facts regarding the behavior of insects 
toward their environment — both organic and inorganic — has been 
collected, and in a few cases this information has been of service in the 
control of injurious forms. In general, however, the application of such 
methods of control is still in its infancy stage, but it gives promise of 
valuable results in the near future. 

As the relations of insects to plants and to other insects have been 
discussed in previous sections attention will be confined here to the 
behavior of insects under the influence of environmental stimuli, such as 
light, heat, moisture, chemical contact, winds, etc. 

For some time it has been known that plants show tropistic move- 
ments with regard to light, heat, gravity, moisture, contact, etc. 
Moreover, some progress has been made toward an understanding 
of the processes. Plants, for example, bend toward the light because 
the cells on the side away from the light grow faster than those on the 
side next to the light. There is no conscious control of the movement 
by the plant. Animals, too, exhibit movements under the influence of 
tropic or taxic^ stimuli. In the case of insects, butterflies, bees, house- 
flies, and many moths and caterpillars are positively phototropic or 
phototactic and move toward the light, while maggots, bed-bugs and 
cockroaches move away from the light. 

^ The term taxic is now more commonly used than tropic when applied to the 
locomotor movements of animals under the action of stimuli, tropic being usually 
reserved for the turning or orienting movements. 



58 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Again, most moths move away from sunlight but move toward a 
lesser light such as electric or oil lamps. Davenport explains this 
difference by saying that "butterflies are attuned to a high intensity of 
light, moths to a low intensity." Loeb explains the circling of moths 
and other insects about a hght. The stimulus orients the insect by its 
more intense action on the muscles next the light, and the insect then 
moves toward the light. 

Loeb states that caterpillars of the brown tail moth as they emerge 
from hibernation in spring are positively phototropic, but after they 
have eaten this response disappears, showing that taxic reactions are 
sometimes dependent on the state of the body. 

''Swaine finds that the destruction of piled logs by the wood-boring 
larvae of the sun-loving Monohammus can be prevented by forming a 
dense shade over the logs by means of brush. In his study of the army 
cutworm {Euxoa auxiliaris) in Alberta, Strickland found that the larvae 
are negatively phototropic and hide beneath the soil till about four or 
five o'clock in the afternoon when they come to the surface to feed. 
With the weaker hght they become positively phototropic and a 
general migration in a westerly direction takes place. When food is 
scarce hunger may overcome their aversion to sunshine with the result 
that the larvae come above ground, but they still display a modified 
negative phototropism and migrate in a northwesterly direction. 
These facts are of practical value in controUing outbreaks of this insect 
(Hewitt)." 

Insects are very responsive to the stimulus of heat, i.e., they are 
thermotactic. • ' 

Some insects respond to the stimulus of touch or contact, and 
are said to be either positively or negatively thigmotactic. Cock- 
roaches are in the habit of squeezing into narrow crevices, and Loeb 
mentions the case of a moth Pyrophila which also has the same habit. 

Chemical substances and foods also act as stimuli influencing the 
movements of insects. Maggots orient themselves with regard to 
their food and then move toward it, the orientation being the result of 
unequal chemical stimulation of the muscles of the two sides of the 
body. The deposition of eggs by most insects on certain plants is also 
the result of chemotropism. The house-fly and many piercing insects 
such as the biting flies and mosquitoes are repelled by phenol and other 
coal tar products. 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 59 

Wheeler and Loeb give several examples of geotropism among 
insects. They observed that lady-birds and cockroaches at rest 
placed themselves on vertical rather than horizontal surfaces. 

Observations show that taxic reactions are very adaptive. Ants 
and aphids are positively phototaxic when they get wings; and honey 
bees are periodically phototaxic, thus leading to swarming. Ants, 
moreover, are strongly thermotaxic, thus securing for their brood the 
optimum temperature conditions. 

Relation of Insects to Temperature and Humidity 

Two important factors influencing the life of insects are temperature 
and humidity. Their general regulatory action has been known for a 
long time, but scientific data obtained in recent years enable us to 
speak more definitely regarding the behavior of insects toward the 
varying temperature and humidity of their environment. 

Pierce in his studies of the cotton boll weevil and other forms 
says: '^A careful study of the records of any species, charting for the 
time required for each activity and the temperature and then similarly 
for the humidity, will disclose temperature and humidity points of 
maximum efficiency. With the boll weevil these points lie approxi- 
mately near 83°F., and 65 per cent, relative humidity." 

Ewing has found that a constant temperature of 9o°F. prevents 
the development of Aphis avence, and that the optimum temperature 
for the production of the wingless agamic forms is about 65°F. 

The larvae of the common house-fly are killed at a temperature of 
io5°F., and the close-packing of manure is sufficient to prevent the 
breeding of flies. 

With regard to changes in humidity, insects vary somewhat widely 
in their reactions. For example, moist air is favorable to most aphids 
and hastens the development of the larva of the Hessian fly. On the 
other hand, dry seasons favor the development of the chinch bug 
and wheat midge. 

Gardeners and florists have long observed that red spiders and most 
species of thrips are more abundant, and hence more injurious, under 
warm dry conditions. 

The investigations of Bachmetjew show that humidity is an im- 
ortant factor modifying the effects of temperature, and that the 



6o ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

metabolic activities of insects are related to both temperature and 
humidity. He says: "Apparently there is a degree of atmospheric 
humidity which being the most favorable to the maximum speed of 
insect metabolism should be designated as the optimum; that this opti- 
mum varies for each species, for each stage of each species, and for 
each stage of each individual." 

The codling moth is an example of a common insect whose develop- 
ment is greatly influenced by weather conditions. Even within the 
limits of a single state or province the rate of its development and the 
time of its stages are influenced by latitude, by early and late seasons, 
by cool and warm seasons, and by wet and dry seasons. The student 
will find in the observations of Simpson in Idaho, Pettit in Michigan, 
Sanderson in New Hampshire, Hammar in Pennsylvania and Michigan, 
Jenne in Arkansas, Caesar in Ontario, Headlee in Kansas, Siegler and 
Simanton in Maine, Brooks and Blakeslee in Virginia, and Forbes 
in Illinois much valuable data for investigations on the relation of 
insects to climatic factors. 

The Distribution or Insects 

On account of the large increase of international trade many economic 
forms of importance have been introduced into Canada and the United 
States from other countries, and as it is a matter of public interest 
to know if such imported forms are likely to become injurious con- 
siderable attention has been given of late years to the investigation 
of this problem. The problem is not yet completely solved, but 
progress may be reported. 

The common natural means of dispersal are flighty wind, animals, 
and railways, etc. Many insects are able to fly long distances, many 
are carried by wind currents and many are transported on materials 
of commerce. A few examples of such dispersal may be cited. The" 
brown-tail moth is a good flyer, and is thus able to spread rapidly. 
On the other hand, the female of the gipsy moth cannot fly, consequently 
the spread of this insect follows the lines of trade. It has been observed 
that the Hessian fly spreads most readily in the direction of the pre- 
vailing winds at the time of the emergence of adults, and that the larvae 
of the San Jose scale are carried by the winds. Again, warble and bot 
flies are transferred from one district to another by their hosts. Man 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 6 1 

himself is responsible for the carrying of lice from district to district, 
often resulting in war time in serious epidemics. 

The Colorado potato beetle migrated eastward from its home in 
Colorado, preferring the cultivated potato to the wild solanums, and 
the asparagus beetles followed the lines of travel westward from the 
Atlantic. 

On the other hand, there are many barriers to the spread of insects: 
oceans, seas, mountain ranges and deserts are natural barriers and 
tend to prevent wide distribution. Climatic conditions, such as 
temperature and moisture, are also very important factors in insect 
distribution, often indirectly due to the absence of suitable food plants. 
The chinch bug and the Rocky Mountain locust, for example, do 
not thrive under moist conditions. 

As the habits of insects are very variable, some being limited, 
others almost cosmopolitan in their distribution; some sensitive to 
•emperature and moisture extremes, others more or less indifferent 
to these factors; some feeding only on one or two hosts, others more 
or less general feeders and therefore not so likely to be restricted in 
their range, the problem of the determination of probable insect 
distribution is not an easy one to solve. Moreover, the presence or 
absence of parasites complicates the problem. 

Dr. Merriam's map of the Life Zones of North America shows 
the distribution of birds and mammals and plants into seven zones 
running east and west, viz.: Arctic, Hudsonian and Canadian oi the 
Boreal region; the Transition, Upper Austral and Lower Austral of 
the Austral region; and Tropical (see Map).^ It must be understood, 
however, that the boundaries of these zones are not hard and fixed, 
for there is necessarily an overlapping to some extent. It is interesting 
to note that the great agricultural areas of Canada and the United 
States lie mainly in the Transition and Upper Austral zones. Recent 
studies go to show that in general insects tend to conform to the same 
zonal distribution, although several forms, such as the house-fly, 
mosquito, chinch bug and army-worm, range through several zones. 

^ Merriam states the laws of temperature control as follows : 
I. "Animals and plants are restricted in northward distribution by the total 
quantity of heat during the season of growth and reproduction; and 2. "Animals 
and plants are restricted in southward distribution by the mean temperature 
of a brief period during the hottest part of the year." 



62 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 






r 

( 



^^#-y ^i- 






4s-^ i 









''\ '"'.-.' 









''*^-. ^V" 




I > l-.iiJI.iKJirAI, SlK-S'l-CV 
FmI'H I H l'Uii\ ISiDN A I 

ZONK .MAi'ol' NoKTM AMKKirA 



Fig. 44. — Map of North America showing the life zones. {After Metriam.) 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 63 

As a rule, however, insects diffuse most readily in the zone in which 
they originated, and in the direction of least resistance. The Transi- 
tion and Austral zones are differentiated into an eastern humid, a 
western arid and a Pacific humid division and certain insects occur in 
one division and not in the others. 

As examples of the economic importance of a study of the factors 
of distribution of insects the cases of the imported elm-leaf beetle 
and San Jose scale may be given. Fernald says: 

"The Elm-leaf Beetle . . . thrives in the Upper Austral Zone, but is 
noticeably absent in the highlands of the Pennsylvania mountain regions, 
though it is present again west of them. To the north it has caused serious 
loss to the elms of New England, resulting in the appropriation of large 
sums for spraying of the trees to protect them from its ravages. Careful 
studies of this pest in Massachusetts show that while a serious menace to the 
Ufe of the elms in the southern part of the state and in the river valleys, it 
becomes of little importance in the higher and northern parts, and many 
towns which formerly appropriated money for the protection of their elms 
from this insect have now learned that this was unnecessary, as the trees 
would suffer but little at most, in any case. 

"With the San Jose Scale similar facts are now coming to light. This 
pest finds the best conditions for its life in the Lower and Upper Austral 
Zones, where it has caused the loss of many millions of dollars. Even in the 
Upper Austral territory of Massachusetts, it is one of the most destructive 
enemies of the fruit-grower. As we pass into the Transition Zone, however, 
its ravages become less severe, and b}^ the time the centre of this zone has 
been reached it is of only medium importance. In this case it has seemed to 
those studying this problem that this insect was originally hmited by the 
Upper Austral, but has gradually acquired some degree of resistance to 
lower temperatures and has thus been able to extend into the Transition 
Zone." 

As Webster has shown, the migration and diffusion of insects have 
occurred along four main lines. The first was from the east by way of 
New York or one of the North Atlantic states and the open pathway 
into the interior past lakes Ontario and Erie. Examples of such 
migration are the imported cabbage butterfly, the two species of 
asparagus beetles, the clover-leaf weevil, the clover-root borer, the 
Hessian fly, the horn fly and the willow curculio. The second fine was 
northward from the West Indies by way of Florida up the Atlantic 
coast, bringing in many beetles, scale insects, the harlequin cabbage 
bug and other Hemiptera. The third hne was northward from Central 



64 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

and South America by way of Mexico, passing up the Mississippi 
valley or up the western valleys. Examples of such migration are the 
Diabroticas, the cotton boll weevil, the Argentine ant, the potato 
beetle, Halisidota, harlequin cabbage bug and the chinch bug. The 
fourth was southward from Asia by way of Alaska. Examples of such 
a dififusion are certain lady-birds, Lina spp. and Silpha spp. 

Regarding the fauna of British Columbia E. M. Walker believes it 
represents a mingling of Asiatic, Californian and Mexican types. 

With regard to insects that have come in from foreign countries 
it is generally true that they confine themselves to zones similar to those 
from which they have come. Of these mention may be made of Crio- 
ceris asparagi, Pieris rapcB, Hylastinus obscurus, the warble^ and bot 
flies, the San Jose scale, and the gypsy and brown-tail moths. Some 
forms, such as the codhng moth and other insects, tend to become cos- 
mopolitan, but they seldom become epidemic outside of their special 
zones. 

Similarity of climatic conditions in corresponding zones of two 
continents renders it easy for species introduced from one to the other 
to gain a footing, as the absence of native parasites affords an oppor- 
tunity for excessive multiplication. 

The influence of elevation on the distribution of insects is seen in 
the southward extension of the zones in hilly or mountainous regions. 
In an understanding of the distribution of many northern forms often 
isolated on summits south of their normal zone geological history comes 
to our aid. The great Tertiary extension of land areas in the north- 
east and the northwest, making land connections with Europe and Asia, 
permitted northern forms from these continents to pass to America, 
and the advance of the Great Glacier southward during the Glacial 
Period forced many northern forms southward, some of whom were 
left stranded on mountain summits on the retreat of the ice. 

Methods of Studying Economic Insects 

It has been already pointed out that one of the characteristics of 
modern-day investigations in economic entomology is the introduction 
of the "field station" method, whereby each pest is studied under 
natural conditions both in the open field and in the laboratory. By 
this method it is possible to study all or most of the factors that play 
a part in the life of both host and pest. No phase is too trivial for 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 65 

examination, for it may sometimes happen that apparently trivial 
and minor factors turn out to be important; for example, the discovery 
of a preoviposition period for many Diptera furnishes a means of con- 
trolling them at this vulnerable period. 

An important part of the equipment of the economic entomologist 
is a knowledge of the principles of "ecology" which enables him to 
analyze and scrutinize the various factors that play upon insects. The 
ecological sciences that have a more or less direct bearing upon economic 
entomology are Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics, Geology and 
Geography, and their outgrowths. Bacteriology, Forestry, Meteorology, 
Physiology, and the group termed Agriculture. 

While a knowledge of these sciences is valuable in the study of in: 
sect problems it must necessarily be general in its character and in- 
sufficient for the solution of many of the more difficult problems. The 
worker should, therefore, confer with specialists in other depart- 
ments. Especially is this necessary in deahng with measures of con- 
trol. Sometimes recommendations are made which are at variance 
with the most approved farm practice. By consultation with an 
agronomist, horticulturist or forester such conflicting recommenda- 
tion would not be given to the public but would first be revised to 
meet all requirements. 

In the study of insects of farm crops, for example, the investigator, 
working along his own line, frequently reaches a position where he 
cannot make further progress without more information from workers 
in other branches and from experienced farmers. Such information 
may relate to methods and action of fertilizers, methods of cultivation 
and rotation, meteorological and physiographic influences, and the 
practical application of measures of procedure. Similarly in dealing 
with orchard insects progress in investigation can only be made when 
there is full co-operation with the expert horticulturist, the orchardist, 
the pathologist and others, who are able to give valuable advice and 
assistance. 

As one might expect, every kind of insect demands its own par- 
ticular method of investigation, for no two kinds of insects are oper- 
ated upon by the same factors. Hence the successful investigator must 
be able to contrive simple but effective devices for the determination of 
the various factors. Costly insectaries and appliances are not abso- 
lutely necessary; on the other hand, the tendency among the best work- 



66 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



ers is to use inexpensive appliances. Tlie most important consideration 
in the rearing of insects for the purpose of ascertaining their life history 
is to make conditions as nearly natural as possible. Cages of various 
kinds covered with muslin or wire netting are in common use. Some 
may be flower pots and lamp chimneys in which the host plants are 




Fig. 45. — Types of underground breeding cages, i, 15-inch pots with wire 
^screen cover tops; 2, 15-inch pots with cyHnder-shaped tops. {After Davis.) 

growing; others, breeding cages of larger size and more elaborate 
construction. 

In the study of underground forms such as white grubs and wire- 
worms the cages are usually buried to the full depth in the earth. 
Davis has found large flower pot cages, deep cylinder-shaped cages and 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



67 




Fig. 46. — Insect breeding cage, a, Sliding glass door; b, galvanized iron base; 
c, galvanized iron holder for records; d, wooden base; e, wooden bottom detachable. 
Sides are covered with cheesecloth. {After Webster.) 




Fig. 47. — A gasoline or electric trap lantern with attachment of four cups for 
nsects, which fit into each other and are separated by netting of different sizes, and 
one for cyanide at the bottom. {After photo by Davis.) 



68 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



cages constructed of wire gauze useful. One-ounce tin salve boxes 
are employed to study the habits of the grubs, their growth and 
moults. 

In the breeding of aphids and other insects which readily succumb to 
heat, the cages are placed in ''shelters" covered with a canvas screen 
so as to permit free air circulation (Figs. 45-49). When trees are 
convenient the shelters may be placed under them and the screens 
removed. 

The rearing and distribution of parasites of insects demands special 
contrivances which may be easily made. Much valuable information 




Fig. 48. — Insectary and aphid breeding shelter, showing canvas curtain rolled up. 

{Photo by J. J. Davis.) 



is available as a result of the experiences of the workers in the Parasite 
Laboratory at Melrose Highlands, Mass. 

The economic entomologist should be a good photographer, and the 
laboratory should possess a full photographic outfit and a dark room. 
Camera records are among the most valuable. 

A very important part of the work of the investigator is the keeping 
and filing of records of the collections, experiments and observations. 
Two catalogues of the collections — the Accessions Catalogue and 



STRUCTURE, GROWTH AND ECONOMICS OF INSECTS 



69 



the Species Catalogue — and an Experiment Record of the experiments 
that are conducted should be kept. The Loose-leaf fiHng system is one 
that is admirably adapted for these purposes. 

The observational notes are best made on separate detachable slips 
of a note book that can be conveniently carried in the pocket. These 
slips are torn off and filed in card index trays under the name of the 
insect discussed. This method saves unnecessary transcribing, is 




Fig, 49. — A large breeding cage used in the study* of locusts, army worms, etc. 

{Photo by J. J. Davis.) 

simple, and serviceable in matters of correspondence and the prep- 
aration of reports and bulletins. 

Three types of collections should be made: (i) the reference collec- 
tion in standard cases such as the Schmitt, the Comstock or other form 
of box in which the specimens are arranged in systematic order accord- 
ing to the latest check lists; (2) the economic collection where the speci- 
mens are arranged according to host, where the life-stages and the work 
of the insect are given prominence; and (3) the illustrative collection 
in Riker mounts for lecture purposes. 



PART II 

TABLES FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FARM, 
GARDEN AND ORCHARD CROPS, ETC. 

I. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CEREAL CROPS 

{Wheat, Rye. Barley, and Oats) 
(Consult Bull. 52 C. E. F. Ottawa, Bull. 44 W. Va., and Farmers' Bull. 132 U. S. Dep. Ag.) 

Roots: 

(a) Plants stunted, yellow, and withered or dead; roots eaten. 

1. Smooth, slender, wire-like, six-legged worms present in the soil. — Wire- 
worms, p. 293. 

2. Presence in the soil of large soft-bodied whitish grubs with brown heads, 
and hinder portion of body thicker than fore end. When disturbed 
grubs curl up. — White Grubs, p. 302. 

3. Large dirty-brown maggots, 3^-i inch long. — Meadow Maggots, p. 242. 

Stems and Leaves: 

(a) Young plants dwarfed, and color changed to yellow or brown; stems 
shrivelled at the base, often bent or broken off; flaxseed objects found 
embedded at or near the base. Oats immune. — Hessian Fly {Mayetiola 
destructor), p. 245. 

{h) Stems above last joint dead, and the heads white — "silver top" or "white 
head" disease. Greenish maggot in stem above last joint. — Wheat Stem 
Maggot (Meromyza americana) and American Frit-fly (Oscinis carhonaria), 
pp. 260-1. 

(c) Swellings or galls on the joints, and stems bent or broken before harvest. — 
Joint Worm (Isosoma tritici), p. 354. 

{d) Stems broken down and tunnelled, blackish near the joints; heads turning 
white; presence in tunnel of yellowish- white larva of saw-fly; oats immune. — 
Western Wheat-stem Saw-fly (Cephus occidentalis) , p. 349. 

(e) Leaves sickly and whitish; the presence of small red and larger black- 
and-white bugs. — Chinch Bug (Blissus leucopterus), p. 161. 

(/) Stems and leaves sickly; the presence of many green or yellowish-green 
plant-lice. — Wheat Plant-louse {Aphis avence), English Grain Plant-louse 
(Macrosiphum granarium) , p. 142. 

(g) Stems and leaves eaten by large dingy striped caterpillars. — Army-worm 
(Cirphis unipuncta), p. 190. 

{h) Leaves eaten by locusts or grasshoppers. Red-legged and other Grass- 
hoppers, — {M elano plus femur-ruhrum et al.), pp. 109-113. 

71 



72 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Heads: 

(a) Heads turn white and grains are shrivelled or imperfectly filled. — Wheat 

Stem Maggot {Meromyza americana) and American Frit-fly {Oscinis car- 

honaria), p. 261. 
{h) Heads shrivelled and blighted, and imperfectly filled; the presence of 

orange-colored maggots. — Wheat Midge {Diplosis tritici), p. 249. 
{c) Heads covered with green plant-lice. — Grain Louse {Aphis avence), p. 142. 
{d) Heads turn white; minute dots or lines on leaves usually run parallel 

with the veins and remain white; the work of minute insects. — Grass Thrips, 

(Anaphothrips striatus), p. 119. 
(e) Spotting of the leaves, spots whitish at first, turning brown or black. — 

Six-spotted Leaf-hopper {Cicadula 6-notata), p. 154. 
(/") Heads blasted and stems withered; the presence of frothy masses on the 

stems. — Grass-feeding Froghop per {Philcsnus lineatus), p. 153. 

« 

n. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO INDL\N CORN OR MAIZE 

(Consult Bull. 44 Illinois Agric. Exper. Station) 
Planted Seed: 

(a) Plant fails to come up after planting; grain destroyed by a maggot which 
eats out the interior. — Seed-corn Maggot (Phorbia fusciceps), p. 277. 

(b) Plant fails to come up, or the young plant suddenly wilts after it is above 
ground; the presence of hard, smooth, yellowish, wire-like worms. — 
Wire-worms spp., p. 293. 

Roots: 

(a) Young plants killed or withered; roots eaten. — White Grubs or Wire-worms, 

P- 303- 
(6) Young plants unequal in growth; roots dwarfed without external injury; 

presence of ants. — Corn-root Louse {Aphis maidi-radicis). 
Stalks: 

{a) Plants cut off near surface of ground. — Cutworms, p. 185. 

{b) Plants unthrifty and covered with greenish plant-lice. — Corn Plant-louse 

{Aphis maidis), p. 142. 
{c) Stalks punctured and slit. — Corn Bill Bugs {Sphenophorus spp.), p. 338. 
{d) Pith of stalk and pedicel of cob tunneled by a flesh-colored caterpillar, 

terminal internode broken. — European Com Borer {Pyrausta nubilalis). 
Leaves: 

{a) Leaves thickly covered with green plant-hce. — Corn Plant-louse {Aphis 

maidis). 
{b) Leaves eaten. — Army-worm {Cirphis unipuncta) and Grasshopper, p. 190. 

(c) Leaves perforated by round or oblong holes arranged in parallel trans- 
verse rows. — Corn Bill Bugs, p. 338. 

{d) Leaves wilted and brownish, sometimes sickly and whitish; the presence of 
small red and larger black-and-white bugs. — Chinch Bug {Bliss us leuco- 
p terns), p. 161. 

(e) Leaves wilted and brownish caused by the maggot of a syrphid fly. — 
Corn-feeding^Syrphid Fly {Mesogramma politus), p. 251. 



IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CROPS 73 

Ears: 

(a) Developing kernels eaten; presence of much excrement. — Corn Ear Worm 
{Heliothis obsoleta), p. 195. 

(b) Stalks of ears covered with plant-lice. — Corn Plant-louse (Aphis maidis), 

p. 142. 

(c) Developing kernels eaten; cob and tassel stalk tunneled. — European Corn 
Borer {Pyrausta nubilalis), p. 212. 

III. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER AND ALFALFA 

(Consult Bull. 134 Illinois Agric. Exper. Station, 1909) 
Roots: 

(a) Second year plants wilted and dead, breaking off easily at the crown. 

Main root, tunnelled and occupied by white footless grubs or little dark 

brown cylindrical beetles. — Clover Root Borer (Hylastinus obscurus), p. 341. 

{b) Plants wilted and leaves dead, mealy bugs near crown of root. — Clover 

Root Mealy Bugs (Pseudococcus trifolii), p. 133. 

Slems: 

(a) A long burrow with brown discolored walls in the pith of the stem which 
falls to the ground prematurely. — Clover Stem Borer (Languria mozardi). 

(b) Stems cut off or eaten. — Cutworms, Army-worms (Cirphis unipunda) and 
Grasshoppers, p. 109. 

(c) Stems and leaves withered and dead; plants covered with large green 
long-legged plant-lice. — Pea or Clover Plant-louse (Macrosiphum pisi), 

p. 149. 
Leaves: 

(a) Leaves full of round holes, and edges gnawed. — Clover Leaf Weevil {Phy- 

tonomiis punctatus), p. 331. 
{b) Leaves eaten and with a ragged appearance. — Grasshoppers, p. 109. 
(c) Leaves folded along midrib, yellowish or brownish, with white or orange 
maggots or silken cocoons within the folds. — Clover Leaf Midge {Dasyneura 
trifolii), p. 248. 
Heads and Seed: 

(a) Florets at blossoming-time green and undeveloped; the ovaries empty or 
with an orange pink or whitish maggot. — Clover Seed Midge (Dasyneura 
leguminicola) , p. 246. 

(b) Florets withered and seeds undeveloped; the presence of frothy masses on 
stems. — Meadow Froghop per (Philcenus spumarius), p. 153. 

(c) Seeds eaten, becoming brown, brittle, and hollow; affected seeds dull brown 
and often misshapen and of small size; maggot minute, white and footless. — 
Clover Seed Chalcid (Bruchophagus fimebris), p. 355. 

(d) Unopened blossoms destroyed, a cavity eaten in the head. — Clover Seed 
Caterpillar (Laspeyresia inter stinctana), p. 228. 

Stacked or Stored Clover Hay: 

(a) Hay containing white silky webs and particles of excrement. — Clover Hay- 
worm (Hypsopygia costalis), p. 208. 



74 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

IV. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PEAS AND BEANS 

Planted Seeds: 

(a) Plant fails to come up, due to work of White Grubs or Wireworms, or Bean 
or Seed Corn Maggot, p. 277. 
Stalks and Leaves: 

(a) Plants cut ofif at night near surface of the ground. — Cutworms, p. 185. 

(b) Plants unhealthy, often killed by sucking lice. — Pea Louse {Macrosiphum 
pisi), p. 149. 

(c) Plants (beans) sickly and sooty, caused by a black aphis feeding at the tips 
at blossoming time.' — Bean Aphis {Aphis rumicis), p. 148. 

Seeds: 

(a) Seeds (peas) within the pod partly eaten and web-covered; pellets of excre- 
ment about injured seed. — Pea Moth (Laspeyresia nigricana), p. 226. 

{b) Seeds within the pod (peas) perforated with holes; footless grubs within. — 
Pea Weevil {Bruchus pisorum), p. 319. 

(c) Seeds (Beans) perforated with (sometimes many) holes; footless grubs 
within. — Bean Weevil {Bruchus obtectus), p. 319. 

V. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN PRODUCTS 

(After Girault, Bull. 156 Illinois Ag. Exp. St.) 

Moths or Millers, 
{a) Caterpillar small, whitish, living in grains of corn or wheat, pupating 
within the grain, and emerging through a round hole covered with 
silk at or near the tip of the kernel. Adult moths grayish clay- 
yellow, small. — Angoumois Grain Moth {Sitotroga cerealella), p. 214. 
{b) Caterpillars, spinning much silk, usually forming a silken tube to 
which they retire; this tube covered with food particles. Living in 
flour, meal, chaflf, sometimes among grain, or in food substances. 
Full-grown caterpillars make a cocoon. 

1. Caterpillar free-living usually not concealed within a silken tube, 
olive-green to pinkish, infesting grain or meal, webbing particles 
together, covering bags of grain with a web of silk and generally 
scattering silk in all directions. The moth is brown and gray. 
Cocoon elliptical, slender, fragile and of clear silk. — Indian Meal 
Moth {Plodia inter punctella) , p. 214. 

2. Caterpillars living in densely woven silken cases covered with 
particles of the food substance. Common in flour or chaflf in 
corners. 

(i) A yellowish white to pinkish caterpillar in flour, webbing it 
together and forming a cocoon covered with particles of 
flour. Moth dark grayish. — Mediterranean Flour Moth 
{Ephestia kuehniella), p. 213: 

(2) A soiled grayish caterpillar, darker at each end, living 
in chaff or other vegetable d6bris in dark damp places. 



IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CROPS 75 

securely webbing the food substance together, so that 
it becomes matted; larval case and cocoon completely 
hidden, covered with the food substance. Adults very 
beautiful and delicately colored moths. — Meal Snout Moth 
{Pyralis farinalis), p. 208. 

Beetles or Weevils. 
(a) Small insects living in kernels of grain, or among grain and other 
■ stored products. 

1. A very small, fat, humped-backed grub, in kernels of wheat or 
corn; yellowish- white, legless, and wrinkled, unable to crawl; 
pupa within the kernel. Adult smaller than a grain of wheat, 
with a snout, and elbowed feelers attached to the snout. 

(i) Adult beetle chestnut-brown, without spots on its upper 
wings. Slightly larger than the next, more common in the 
North. — Granary or Black Weevil {Calandra granaria), p. 

337. 
(2) Adult beetle somewhat duller brown than the preceding 
with four reddish spots, one on each outer corner of the 
upper wing. A southern species. — Rice or Spotted Weevil 
(Calandra oryzce). 

2. Small, more or less slender, somewhat flattened grubs, with dis- 
tinct head and thoracic legs, crawling about in the debris of var- 
ious grains or their products, or in vegetable foodstuffs. 
Adults flattened, longer than wide, the head not prolonged into 
a snout. They occur with the grubs, actively feeding. 

(i) Grub uniform in color, whitish, about one-fourth inch 
long, slender, its head narrower than the first body segment; 
pupa with the thorax not toothed laterally, but with most of 
the abdominal segments bearing a tooth-like lobe, acute at 
each outer corner and toothed along its sides. Adult beetle 
active, smooth, elliptical, and reddish brown. — Confused 
Flour Beetle {TrihoUum confusum), p. 328. 

(2) Grub whitish, with a rectangular yellowish area on 
each segment above, only the margin whitish as seen 
from above; head broader than first body segment. 
Pupa bears along each side of the thorax and abdomen 
a series of stout lobe-like teeth, which are cylindrical- 
rectangular and blunt. Adult beetle smaller than in the 
preceding species, color dark chocolate-brown, sides 
of the thorax saw-toothed. — Saw-toothed Grain Beetle 
{Silvanus surinamensis) , p. 326. 

(3) Grub dull white with a dark brown head; fleshy, three- 
fourths inch long; posterior end with two dark horny 
points. Pupa white, adult beetle, elongate, depressed, 



76 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

nearly black, one-third inch long. — Cadelle (Tenebroides 

mauritanicus) , p. 326. 
(b) Large insects, concealed in the bottoms of bins, corners, and the like, 
feeding upon flour, meal or bran. Adults large black beetles; the lar- 
vae, large, cylindrical, wormlike creatures, resembling wireworms. 

1. Adult not quite black in color, shining, its third antennal joint not 
quite twice as long as the second; larva light yellowish, shining. — 
Yellow Meal-worm Beetle (Tcnebrio niolitor ), p. 327. 

2. Adult black and without luster, its third antennal joint thrice as 
long as the second; larva very dark, shining. — Dark Meal-worm 
Beetle (Tenebrio obscurus), p 328. 

VI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ROOT CROPS 

(Turnips, rape, mangels, and carrots) 
(Consult Bull. 52 C. E. F.. Ottawa, and Bull. 60, 111. Exp. Sta.) 
Roots: 

(a) Tips of roots of young carrots with rusty patches on surface, or rust colored 

tunnels in the pulp, due to slender yellowish- white maggots. — Carrot Rust 

Fly (Psila rosce), p. 262. 

{b) Roots of turnips bored or tunnelled by minute grubs or maggots. — Turnip 

Flea Beetle (Phyllotreta vittata); Cabbage Root Maggot (Phorbia brassicce), 

P- 273- 
(c) Roots cut off. — Wireworms, White Grubs, Cutworms, pp. 185, 293, 302. 

Stem and Leaves: 

(a) Young plants cut off at the ground. — Cutworms, p. 185. 
{b) Surface of first leaves of turnip and rape eaten into small holes by small 
active black striped beetles. — Turnip Flea Beetle {Phyllotreta vittata), p. 314. 

(c) Leaves partly consumed by pale-green caterpillars. — Cabbage Worm (Pieris 
rapce), p. 175. 

(d) Leaves eaten by caterpillars with black and yellow stripes. — Zebra Cater- 
pillar (Ceramica picta), p. 188. 

(e) Leaves wilt and turn yellow, with presence of greenish lice. — Turnip Plant- 
louse (Aphis brassicce), p. 148. 

(/) Young leaves eaten into holes and irregular blotches by small active green 
caterpillars. — Diamond Back Moth {Plutella maculipennis), p. 232. 

(g) Under-surface of leaves covered with a very fine loose web; leaves yellow- 
ish in patches, and minute red objects present. — Red Spiders, p. 367. 

{h) Leaves eaten by red beetles with black stripes (Prairie Provinces). — Red 
Turnip Beetle (Entomoscelis adonidis), p. 309. 

VII. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO CROP 

Tubers: 

(a) Surface of tuber eaten and ej^es sometimes destroyed so that growth does 
not take place; or holes bored in the tuber.- — White Grubs, Wireworms, 
Millipedes, p. 369. 



IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CROPS 77 

Stalks and Leaves: 

(a) Stalks cut off at the ground. — Cutworms, p. 185. 

(b) Leaves eaten and infested with reddish soft grubs and striped beetles. — 
Colorado Potato Beetle {Lepiinotarsa decemlineata) , p. 308. 

(c) Leaves riddled with small holes or surface eaten in spots by small active 
jumping black beetles. — Potato Flea Beetle {Epitrix cucumeris), p. 313. 

(d) Leaves eaten and with a ragged appearance; presence of long black or 
striped soft beetles. — Blister Beedes {Epicauta spp.), p. 325. 

(e) Stalk wilts and dies, tunnel in stalk near the ground, and presence of a 
white footless grub. — Potato Stalk Borer {Trichoharis trinotata), p. 334. 

(/■) Green plant-lice on the leaves; migrating to the rose. — Potato Plant-louse 
(Macrosiphum solanifolice) . 

VIII. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GARDEN VEGETABLES 

[Under the term "Garden Vegetables" may be included Asparagus, Beets, 
Cabbage, Cauliflower, Celery, Cucumber, Onion, Parsnip. (Carrots, beans, peas 
and potatoes have already been considered.)] 

Roots : 

(a) Roots of cabbage and cauliflower and bulb or base of onion mined by white 

maggots. — Root Maggots (Phorbia brassicce and Phorbia cepetorum), p. 273. 
(6) Roots of cucumber, squash, melon and pumpkin eaten, and plants fail to 

come up. — White Grubs, Wireworms. 
(c) Roots of cucumber, etc., gnawed and mined, plants wilt and die. — Striped 

Cucumber Beetle {Diabrotica vittata), p. 307. 

Stems and Leaves: 

(a) Young plants cut off near surface of ground. — Cutworms. 

(b) Stalks, vines and leaves of cucumber, etc., eaten, and base, mined by small 
white grubs. — Cucumber Beetles (Diabrotica spp.), p. 307. 

(c) Vines of cucumber, etc., wilted, and presence of large dark stink-bugs on 
leaves. — Squash Bug (Anasa tristis), p. 160. 

(d) Leaves and vines of cucumber, etc., sickly and dirty, under surfaces infested 
with greenish-black lice. — Melon Plant-louse {Aphis gossypii). 

{e) Surface of leaves of cucumber, etc., eaten by small black beetles. — Cucumber 

Flea Beetle {Epitrix cucumeris), p. 313. 
(/) Leaves of cabbage, etc., ragged, eaten by pale-green caterpillars. — Cabbage 

Worm {Pieris rapce), p. 175. 
(g) Leaves of cabbage, etc., wilted, and under-surface covered with greenish 
. plant-lice. — Cabbage Plant-louse {Aphis brassicce), p. 148. 

IX. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE 

(Consult Manual of Fruit Insects by Slingerland and Crosby) 

Roots: 

ia^ Bluish-white mouldy lice causing knots or swellings on the smaller roots. — 
Woolly Aphis {Schizoneura lanigera), p. 145. 



78 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

(b) Large white grubs feeding on the roots of nursery stock. — White Grubs 
(Lachnosterna spp.), p- 302. 
Trunk, Branches and Twigs: 

(a) A green curiously shaped bug producing longitudinal slits in the bark; 
eggs laid under the edges of the slits. — Buffalo Tree Hopper {Ceresa bubalus), 

p. 157- 

(b) White woolly patches on the twigs which are usually scarred. — Woolly 
Aphis {Sckizoneura lanigcra), p. 145. 

(c) Green soft-bodied sucking insects in clusters on young growths, particularly 
at ends of twigs, producing distortions. — Apple Aphids {Aphis mali, A. 
sorbi and A. avence), p. 143. 

{d) Snout beetles gnawing ofif the bark in patches. — Imbricated Snout Beetle 
{Epiccerus imbricatus). 

(e) Fixed to bark: 

1. Scales round and gray and black producing an ashy gray incrusta- 
l tion on the bark. — San Jose Scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus) , p. 126. 

2. Bark rough with mussel-shaped scales. — Oyster-shell Scale (Lepido- 
saphes ulmi), p. 124. 

3. Bark scurfy with white scales. — Scurfy Scale {Chionaspis furfura), 
p. 125. 

(/) Making tunnels in the wood: 

1. Large square-headed legless borer at or near the ground in tunnels, 
with sawdust-like excrement. — Round-headed Borer (Saperda Candida), 
p. 320. 

2. Large flat-headed legless borer in upper trunk in tunnels with saw- 
dust-like excrement. — Flat-headed Borer {Chrysobothris femorata), 
p. 300. 

3. Large grub in decaying wood. — Eyed Elater (Alans oculatus) and 
Rough Osmodenna (Osmoderma scabra), p. 305. 

4. Making tunnels between the bark and wood. Fruit Bark Beetle 
{E'Xoptogaster rugulosus), p. 339. 

Buds: 

(a) Light green caterpillars with brown head and shield, folding together the 

opening leaves and feeding within. — Oblique Banded Leaf -roller (Caccecia 

rosaccana). Fruit-tree Leaf Roller (C. argyrospila), and Leaf Grumpier {Mineola 

indigenella) , p. 230. 
{b) Brownish caterpillar with black head and shield eating the centre of the 

bud, or tunnelling it. — Eye-spotted Bud Moth {Tmetocera ocellana), p. 225. 

(f) Measuring worms, eating leaves of buds. — Ganker Worms {Alsophila pome- 
tar ia and Palcacrita vcrnata), p. 205. 

(d) Caterpillars feeding within pistol-shaped cases and eating irregular holes in 
the bud leaves. — Pistol Gase Bearer (Haploptilia malivorella) , p. 235. 

{e) Caterpillars feeding within cigar-shaped cases and eating small round holes 
in the bud leaves. — Gigar Gase Bearer (Haploptilia fletcherella), p. 234. 

(/") Click beetles feeding on buds. — Gorymbites spp., p. 297. 



IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CROPS 79 

Leaves: 

(c) Gregarious caterpillars: 

Caterpillars protected by webs: 

1. Webs in forks of branches in spring. — Tent-caterpillar {Malacosoma 
americana), p. 203. 

2. Webs covering the leaves in summer and early autumn. — Fall Web 
Worm {Hyphantria textor), p. 181. 

3. Leaves partly eaten and drawn together by a web. — Palmer Worm 
(Dichomeris pometella), p. 215. 

Caterpillars not protected by a web: 

1. Clustered on limbs. — Yellow-necked Cater pillar (Datana ministra), p. 198. 

2. Red-humped Apple-tree Caterpillar (Schizura concinna), p. 199. 

3. Forest Caterpillar {M. disstria), p. 204. 
(b) Solitary caterpillars: 

Protected caterpillars: 

1. Mining within the leaf, pupa inside of folded leaf. — Apple Leaf Miner 
{Tischeria malifoliella) , p. 235. 

2. Mining within the leaf, mature larva and pupa within a small oval 
seed-like body. — Resplendent Shield Bearer {Aspidisca splendoriferella), 
p. 232. 

3. Feeding within a pistol-shaped case which stands out from the leaf . — 
Pistol Case Bearer {Haploptilia malivorella) , p. 235. 

4. Feeding within a cigar-shaped case which stands out from the leaf. — 
Cigar Case Bearer {Haploptilia jletcherella), p. 234. 

5. Feeding within a folded leaf. — Leaf Roller (Teras malivorana), Cacoecia 
spp., Apple Leaf Sewer {Ancylis nubeculana), p. 230. 

6. Feeding within a tube of silk, open at both ends, on epidermis and 
inner tissues, leaving the veinlets. — Bud Moth (Tmetocera ocellana), 
p. 225. 

7. Feeding on tissues of leaves beneath a silk web. — Apple Leaf-skele- 
tonizer {Psorosina hammondi), p. 213. 

8. Brown caterpillar feeding within a crooked black case and attached 
to twigs in winter. — Leaf Crumpler {Mineola indigenella) , p. 213. 

Unprotected caterpillars: 

1. Measuring worms in spring, feeding in the daytime. — Canker Worms 
{A. pometaria and P. vernata), p. 205. 

2. Sleek i6-legged caterpillars, feeding at night. — Cutworms, p. 186. 

3. Large green caterpillar, covered with spiny tubercles. — Cecropia 
Moth {Samia cecropia), p. 180. 

4. Large apple-green caterpillar with white oblique stripes on sides. — 
Polyphemus Moth {Telea Polyphemus), p. 180. 

5. Hairy caterpillar with long black tufts over head and tail. — Tussock 
Moth (Hemerocampa leucostigma), p. 202. 

6. Large green caterpillar with a reddish-brown horn at tail, and seven 
oblique stripes on each side. — Apple Sphinx {Sphinx gordius), p. 178. 



8o ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

7. Small caterpillars with brown head and yellowish-green body, feeding 

on leaves. — Apple-leaf Biiccnlatrix {Biicculatrix pomijoliella), p. 236. 

{c) Plant-lice. Greenish or rosy colored sucking insects feeding on the under 

sides of leaves, often distorting them. — Aphis mali, A. sorbi, and A. avencz, 

P- 143- 
(d^ Beetles: 

1. Large brown beetles feeding at night on leaves. — May Beetles {Lach- 
nosterna spp.), p. 302. 

2. Small brown beetles, feeding at night. — Leaf Beetles, p. 301. 

(e) Mites. Oval reddish-brown mites feeding on leaves causing them to become 
blanched, yellow or sickly. — Clover Mite {Bryobia pratensis), p. 367. 
Fruit: 

(a) Boring tunnels through the fruit: 

1. Tunnels made mostly about the core; made by a pinkish caterpillar 
three-fourths inch long when full grown; brown excrement often visible 
at opening at blossom end of apple. — Codling Moth (Carpocapsa 
pomonella), p. 219. 

2. Tunnels not so deep as in i, often blotched mines near the surface. 
Made by caterpillars not so large as codling worms. — Lesser Apple 
Worm {Laspeyresia prunivora), p. 227. 

3. Tunnels irregular and numerous made by a maggot. — Apple Maggot 
{Trypeta pomonella), p. 266. 

{b) Puncturing the fruit: 

1. Four-humped beetles puncturing the fruit and distorting it. — Apple 
Curculio {Anthonomus quadrigibbus), Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus 
nenuphar), p. 329. 

2. Purplish spots about the circular scales. — San Jos6 Scale {Aspidiotus 
perniciosus), p. 126. 

3. Puncturing and deforming the fruit. — Several species of Capsidce 
(False tarnished plant bug and the apple red bugs); and Syntomaspis 
druparum (p. 165). 

(c) Eating holes in the fruit: 

1. Large light yellow or apple-green caterpillars with a narrow cream 
colored stripe along middle of the back. — Green Fruit Worms {Grap- 
tolitha spp.j, p. 197, 

2. Yellowish hairy beetle one-half inch long. — Bumble Flower Beetle 
{Euphoria inda), p. 305. 

3. Green worm-like saw-fiy larva hibernating in cavities scooped out of 
apple. — Dock False Worm {Ametastegia glabrata), p. 347. 

X. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PLUM 

Roots: 

(a) Burrows made by a caterpillar about the crown of the roots, occasionally 
in young trees. — Peach-tree Borer {Synanthedon exitiosa), p. 216. 

Trunk, Branches and Tuigs: 

(a) Tunnels in the wood by flat-headed grubs; sawdust-like excrement at the 
mouth of tunnels. — Flat-headed Borer {Chrysobothris femorata), p. 300. 



IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CROPS 8 1 

(b) Tunnels in the bark by small legless grubs. — Fruit Bark-beetle {Eccopto- 
gaster rugulosiis), p. 339. 

(c) Bases of buds perforated, bark becomes discolored, and leaves and fruit 
wither. — Pear Blight Beetle (Anisandrus pyri), p. 340. 

(d) Fixed to bark: 

1. Flat or saddle-shaped, or hemispherical dark-brown scales; wintering 
forms small and flattish. Large scales appear after mid-summer, 
brittle, contain only a whitish dust or empty egg-shells. — Fruit 
Lecanium {Lecanium corni), p. 129. 

2. Ashy-gray appearance of bark of badly infested trees due to small 
gray or black circular scales. — San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus), 
p. 126. 

3. Mussel-shaped scales, with whitish eggs underneath in winter. — 
Oyster Shell Scale {Lepidosaphes ulmi), p. 124. 

4. Bark scurfy with scales with purplish eggs underneath in winter. — 
Scurfy Scale (Chionaspis furftira), p. 125. 

(e) A grass green curiously shaped bug producing longitudinal slits and eventu - 
ally oval-shaped scars on the back of the twigs. — Buffalo Tree-hopper {Ceresa 
bubalus), p. 157. 

Leaves: 

(a) Feeding in Colonies. 

1. Caterpillars protected by webs in the forks of branches. — American 
Tent-caterpillar {Malacosoma americana), p. 203. 

2. Caterpillars protected by webs covering the leaves. — Fall Web-worm 
{Hyphantria text or), p. 181. 

3. Not protected by webs; greenish lice with sucking mouths. — Plum- 
leaf Aphis {Aphis prunifolii). 

(b) Solitary. 

1. Measuring worms, feeding in the day time in spring. — Canker Worms 
(Alsophila pometaria) , p. 205. 

2. Fat greasy caterpillars, feeding at night in spring. — Cutworms, p. 192. 

3. Hairy caterpillars with long black plumes over head and tail. — 
Tussock Moth {Hemerocampa leucostigma), p. 202. 

4. Large buzzing beetles. — June Beetles (Lachnosterna spp.), p. 302. 

5. Large apple-green caterpillar, with a horn near the tail, and with seven 
broad oblique white stripes along each side. — Plum-tree Sphinx 
{Sphinx drupiferarum) , p. 178. 

Other larvae are occasionally found feeding on the leaves of plum. — 
The Viceroy {Limenitis disippus), Polyphemus and Cecropia, p. 180. 
Fruit: 

{a) A snout-beetle puncturing and making a crescent-shaped slit in the skin of 
the young fruit which soon drops. — Plum Curculio {Conotrachelus nenuphar), 

P- 329- 
{b) Making a round hole in the young fruit. — Phim Gouger {Coccotorus scuteU 
laris). 



82 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

(c) A medium sized beetle eating holes in the ripe fruit. — Bumble Flower-beetle 

{Euphoria mda), p. 305. 
{d) A long-legged straw-colored beetle eating holes in the half-ripe fruit. — Rose 

Chafer {Macrodactylus stibspmosus), p. 305. 

XI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CHERRY 

Root: 

(a) A thick whitish grub, with brown head and legs, feeding in decaying roots. 
Beetle large with powerful mandibles. — Stag Beetle (Lucanus dama), p. 318. 
(b) A large white fleshy grub, with reddish head, feeding in old roots. — Rough 
Osmoderma {Osmoderma scabra), p. 305. 

Trunk, Branches and Twigs: 

(a) A snout beetle gnawing the twigs and fruit. — Imbricated Snout Beetle 

(Epiccerus imbricatus) . 
{b) A small beetle boring in the branches just above a bud, and burrowing 
downward. — Apple Twig Borer {Amphicerus bicaudatus), p. 327. 

(c) A flattened grub tunneling in the bark and sap-wood; beetle bronzy metallic. 
— Divaricated Buprestis {Dicerca divaricata) . 

(d) Large sucking insect with transparent wings, inflicting wounds on the 
smaller limbs and depositing eggs therein in August and September. — 
Dog-day Cicada {Cicada tibicen), p. 157. 

{e) Small circular scales, black in winter, with a circular depression about a 
central nipple. — San Jose Scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus) , p. 126. 

(/■) Dirty nests inclosing a colony of yellow caterpillars one-half inch long at 
end of twigs. — Cherry-tree Tortrix {Cacoecia cerasivorana), p. 230. 

Leaves: 

{a) A small beetle feeding on the leaves of red cherry. — Cherry Leaf Beetle 

{Galerucella clavicollis), p. 311. 
{b) A shiny, dark-green slug, one-half inch long, feeding on soft tissues, leaving 

the veins. — Pear or Cherry Slug {Eriocampoides limacina), p. 348. 
(c) Shining black plant-lice infesting the terminal twigs chiefly, which become 

distorted and discolored. — Cherry Plant-louse {Myzus cerasi), p. 144. 
{d) Large bluish-green caterpillar two inches long with blue warts on each 

segment, and coral red ones on the third and fourth segments. — Promethea 

Moth {Callosamia promethea), p. 180. 
{e) Large pale-green spiny caterpillar, striped on each side with white and 

lilac. — lo Moth {Hyperchiria lo), p. 180. 
(/) Caterpillars in colonies protected by webs in forks of branches in spring. 

— American Tent-caterpillar {Malacosoma americana), and Forest Tent- 
caterpillar {M. disstria) not in webs, p. 203. 
{g) Caterpillars in colonies protected by webs covering the leaves in summer 

and early autumn. — Fall Web Worm {Hyphantria textor), p. 181. 



IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CROPS 83 

Fruit: 

(a) A crescent cut on the cherry; grub, white and footless, with a brownish 

horny head, feeding within. — Plum Curculio {Contrachelus nenuphar),^. 329. 
ih) Yellowish-white maggots feeding on the pulpy juices near the pit, inducing 

a rotting. — Cherry Fruit Flies (Rhagolctis cingulata and R. fausta), p. 265. 

XII. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH 

Root and Lower Trunk: 

(a) Tunneling in the bark and sapwood of the root and lower trunk, causing an 
exudation of gum, which is seen at base of tree mingled with the castings. — 
Peach Tree Borer {Synanthedon exitiosa), p. 216. 

Trunk and Branches: 

(a) In early spring a minute caterpillar bores into the shoots of new leaves, 

killing the growing terminals. — Peach Twig Borer (Anarsia linealella), 

p. 215. 
ib) Black hemispherical scales attached to the bark. — Peach Leaf Lecanium 

(Lecanium nigrofasciatum) , .p. 129. 
(c) A beetle eating the buds and gnawing into the base of the twigs, causing 

them to break and fall. — New York Weevil {Ithycerus novehoracensis). 
{d) Round scales, gray or black; twigs presenting a scurfy appearance. — 

San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus) , p. 126. 
(e) Oval scars and longitudinal slits on bark produced by a green buffalo- 
shaped bug. — Buffalo Tree Hopper {Ceresa bubalus), p. 157. 
Leaves: 

(a) Plant-lice, living in colonies under the leaves, causing them to thicken 

and curl. — Peach Tree Aphis {Myzus persicce), p. 144. 
(6) Minute round scales located usually along the veins. — San Jose Scale 

{Aspidiotus perniciosus) , p. 126. 
(c) Caterpillars protected; 

1. In a tortuous tube. — Leaf Cnnnpler (Mineola indiginella) , p. 213. 

2. In folded leaves. — Oblique Banded Leaf Roller {Cacoecia rosaccana), 
p. 230. 

Fruit: 

(a) Long-legged yellowish beetles eating holes in half-grown peaches. — Rose 
Chafer (Macrodactylus stib spinas us), p. 305. 

(b) Large yellow hairy beetles eating holes in ripe peaches. — Bumble Flower 
Beetle (Euphoria inda), p. 305. 

(c) Small snout-beetles making a puncture and crescent in the young fruit. — 
Plum Curculio {Conotrachelus nenuphar), p. 329. 

XIII. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 

Roots and Base of Canes: 

(a) Large grub over two inches long, boring large tunnels in the woody portion 
of main root. The canes suddenly die. — Giant Root Borer (Prionus laticollis) , 
p. 321. 



84 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

(/)) Canes at base of main root girdled by a yellowish-white caterpillar in late 
summer and autumn. — Bramble Croivn Borer {Bemhecia marginata), p. 218. 
Canes: 

(a) Longitudinal row of punctures on canes. — Black-horned Tree Cricket {(Ecan- 
thus nigricornis) , p. 116. 

(6) Tips of raspberry canes wilting in early summer, due to a girdling of the 
canes inside the bark. — Raspberry Cane Maggot {Phorbia rubivora), p. 277. 

(c) Tips of shoots of raspberry wilting in July and August; two rows of hori- 
zontal punctures one inch apart at base of wilted portion, with a small hole 
between. Canes burrowed to the base before autumn. — Raspberry Cane 
Borer (Oberea bimacidata), p. 321. 

(d) Swellings on canes of raspberry and blackberry. — Red-necked Cane Borer 
{Agrilus ruficollis), p. 301. 

Buds: 

(a) A small snout-beetle puncturing the flower stem close to the buds, and 
also the huds.— Strawberry Weevil {Anthonomus signatus), p. 232. 

(b) A small yellowish beetle eating the flower buds, which either fail to open or 
wither. — Pale Broivn Byturus {Byturus unicolor), p. 292. 

(c) A small brownish caterpillar eating the opening buds. — Bud Moth {Tmeto- 
cera ocellana), p. 225. 

Leaves: 

(a) Bugs sucking the sap of young growing parts, and arresting their develop- 
ment. — Tarnished Plant Bug (Lygus pratensis), p. 163. 

{b) Suckers and leaves curled up with enclosed lice. — Bramble Flea Louse 
(Trioza tri punctata), p. 152. 

(c) Small greenish larvse with spiny tubercles eating the leaves in spring. — 
Raspberry Saw-Fly {Monophadnus rubi), p. 347. 
Fruit: 

(a) A looper feeding on fruit of raspberry and blackberry. — Raspberry Geometer 
{Synchlora aerata) . 

XIV. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GOOSEBERRY AND CURRANT 

Canes: 

(a) Tips of canes girdled and wilted; pith tunneled. — Currant Stem Girdler 
(Janus integer), p. 345. 

(b) Centre of cane tunneled by a white caterpillar. — Imported Currant Borer 
{Synanthedon tipuliformis), p. 217. 

(c) Small flat circular scales, black or gray, with a depressed ring about a 
central nipple in black forms. — San Jose Scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus) ^ 
p. 126. 

id) Oval hemispherical scales. — Currant Lecanium {Lecatiiumr ibis). 

(e) Longitudinal rows of punctures on canes. — Black-horned Tree Cricket 
(CEcanthus nigricornis), p. 116. 



IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CROPS 85 

Leaves: 

(a) Larvae, 20-legged, dull white when young, then greenish with black spots, 

finally greenish yellow, eating holes in the leaves in early spring. — Imported 

Currant Worm (Pteronus ribesii), p. 346. 
{h) Leaves curled, blistered, and with a reddish appearance on upper surface, 

caused by yellowish plant-lice — Currant Plant-louse (Myzus ribis), p. 145. 

(c) Leaves turning brown and dying. — Four Lined Leaf-bug {Pcecilocapsus 
lineatus), p. 1630 

(d) Measuring worm feeding on leaves of gooseberry and black currant. — 
Currant Span-worm {Cymatophora ribearia), p. 206. 

(e) White spots on leaves, produced by a pale green sucking insect occurring 
on the under surface. — Currant Leaf Hopper (Empoasca), p. 155. 

(/) Green plant-lice. — Green Gooseberry Aphis {Aphis sanborni). 

Fruit: 

(a) Greyish caterpillar boring into young fruit and eating out its contents. — 
Gooseberry Fruit Worm {Zophodia grossularice). 

(b) Purplish spots surrounding small circular scales. — San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus 
perniciosus) , p. 126. 

(c) Yellow oval maggots eating the gooseberry. — Gooseberry Midge (Cecido- 
myia grossularice) . 

(d) Small white maggot eating the currant and gooseberry, causing the fruit 
to turn red and fall. — Currant Frtiit-miner {Epochra canadensis) , p. 265. 

XV. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 

(Consult Bull. 331, N. Y. Ag. Exp. St. and Farmers' Bull. 70, U. S. Dep. Ag.) 

Roots: 

(a) Producing soft yellow irregular spherical galls on rootlets and larger roots, 
causing death. — Grape Vine Phylloxera {Phylloxera vastatrix), p. 148. 

{b) Large borer, cutting a tube through the root near the surface. — Broad- 
necked Prionus {Prionus laticollis). 

{c) Grub eating the bark of both the large and small roots. — Grape Vine Fidia 
{Fidia viticida), p. 311. 

Branches: 

(a) Young shoots suddenly break ofif or droop in spring; a small hole just above 
the base of the shoot leading into a burrow. — Apple Twig Borer {Amphicerus 
bicaudatus), p. 327. 

(b) Canes show roughened longitudinal rows of perforations in the bark. — 
Tree Cricket {(Ecanthus nigricornis), p. 116. 

(c) Canes exhibiting white cottony masses attached to a reddish-brown scale. — 
Cottony Scale {Pulvinaria vitis), p. 130. 

Leaves: 

(a) Leaves riddled with irregular holes about mid-summer by a little beetle. — 
Grape Vine Fidia {Fidia viticida), p. 311. 



86 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

(b) Small, shining, blue beetle boring into buds in spring, also eating small 
holes in expanding leaves. — Grape Vine Flea Beetle (Haltica ckalybea), p. 315. 

(c) Long-legged brownish beetles eating the blossoms, leaves and fruit. — 
Rose Chafer (Macrodactylus subspinosus), p. 305. 

(d) Greenish caterpillar, feeding within a folded leaf and skeletonizing it, about 
mid-summer. — Grape Leaf Folder {Desmia funeralis). 

(e) Leaves blotched and scorched, finally curling up and falling, caused by- 
little jumping insects. — Grape Thrips or Leaf Hopper (Typhlocyba comes), 

P- 155- 
(/) Large greenish caterpillar, with a pale yellow stripe down each side and a 

horn near tail. — Grape Vine Sphinx {Ampeloeca myron), p. 178. 
(g) Several other sphingid larvae feed on the leaves of the grape. 
(h) Black beetle eating the tissues on the upper surface of the leaves, and 

discoloring them. — Red-headed Sysiena (Systena frontalis), p. 315. 
(i) Producing small, irregular, spherical galls on the lower surface of the leaves. 

— Grape Vine Phylloxera (Phylloxera vastatrix), p. 148. 
(j) Large reddish-yellow beetle with six black spots on wing cover, eating holes 

in leaves. — Spotted Pclidnota {Pelidnota punctata), p. 302. 
Fruit: 

(a) Ripening fruit discolored and burrowed by a whitish caterpillar. — Grape 
Berry Moth (Polychrosis viteana), p. 228. 

(b) Holes eaten in ripe fruit; beetle large, yellowish, hairy. — Bumble Flower 
Beetle (Euphoria inda), p. 305. 

(c) Holes eaten in young fruit by a long-legged beetle. — Rose Chafer (Macro- 
dactylus subspinosus), p. 305. 

XVI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 

Roots: 

(a) A pinkish caterpillar boring irregular channels through the crown and 
larger roots, causing them to wither and die. — Strawberry Root Borer 
(Anarsia lincatella), p. 215. 

(b) A white grub boring downward from the crown. — Strawberry Crown Borer 
(Tyloderma fr agar ice), p. 332. 

(c) A large white grub eating the roots. — May Beetle (Lachnosterna sp.), p. 302. 

(d) Grubs girdling the roots, causing death. — Strawberry Root-weevil (Otio- 
rhynchus ovatus), p. 336. 

Leaves: 

(a) Brownish caterpillars, in June and August, rolling the leaves into cases and 
fastening them with silk. — Strawberry Leaf Roller (Ancylus comptana), 
p. 232. 

(b) Young plants gnawed off at the surface. — Cutworms, p. 185. 

(c) Small pale spotted active beetles riddling the leaves with holes in June. — 
Spotted Paria (Paria 6-notata). 

(d) Small active jumping striped beetles, eating holes in the leaves. — Striped 
Flea Beetle (Phyllotreta vittata), p. 314. 



IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CROPS 87 

(e) Twenty-legged grubs eating holes in the leaves. — Strawberry Saw fly 
{Emphytus maculatus) 
Fruit: 

(a) Caterpillars feeding on the berry. — Stalk Borer (Papciperna nitela), p. 196. 
{b) Minute black bugs producing a buggy odor when eaten with berry. — Flea- 
like Negro Bug (Corimelcena pulicaria), p. 167. 

(c) Flower buds drooping and bending over. — Strawberry Weevil {Anthonomus 
signatus), p. 332. 

(d) Fruits deformed to "buttons. " — Strawberry Thrips (Euthrips tritici), p. 122. 

XVII. INSECTS AFFECTING SHADE TREES 

(Consult Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees by Felt) 

(a) Feeding on the leaves. 

(b) Feeding or resting under webbed tents. 

(i) Hairy yellowish-brown and black marked caterpillars feeding 
on leaves within webbed tents in July-Sept.; adult moths white 
or black-spotted. — Fall Web Worm (Hyphantria cnnea), p. 181. 
(2) Hairy black caterpillars, white stripe along middle of back, lateral 
white and yellow line with blue spots. Resting in silken webbed 
tents at angles of branches. — Orchard Tent-caterpillar {Malacosoma 
americana), p. 203. 
^bb) Feeding free on the leaves. 
I. Adult moths not white. 

(1) Caterpillars with a broken line of white dots along back, 
and resting in masses on sides of branches and trunks, not 
within webs. — Forest Tent-caterpillar {Malacosoma disstria), 
p. 204. 

(2) Caterpillars with red heads and yellow and black tufts and 
pencils. Female moth wingless. — White-marked Tussock Moth 
(Hemerocampa leucostigma), p. 202. 

(3) Brownish caterpillars with blue and reddish warts; hibernat- 
ing as egg-masses covered with hair; adult female moth with 
white wings marked with dark wavy lines, wings of males 
light brown. — Gipsy Moth (Porthetria dispar), p. 200. 

(4) "Measuring worms" feeding in the daytime in spring and 
early summer. — Fall Canker Worm {Alsophila pometaria), 
p. 205. 

(5) Caterpillars with tufts of white, black, or yellow hairs, and 
pencils of black or orange or white hairs. Feeding on hickory, 
butternut, etc. — Tiger Moths {Halisidota spp.), p. 183. 

(6) Caterpillars with sharp pale yellow hairs and with a pair 
of long black hair pencils on the first and third abdominal 
segments, and a single one on the eighth. Feeding on elm, 
maple, hickory, oak, ash, poplar, etc. — American Dagger Moth 
{Acronycta americana), p. 198. 



88 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

(7) Caterpillars black with a loose covering of soft whitish hairs. 
Feeding in clusters on walnut, hickory, oak, beech, etc. — 
Walnut Caterpillar (Datana integer rim a), p. 199. 

(8) Small grcon caterpillars, skeletonizing the leaves of birches 
and forming small round white moulting cocoons on the 
twigs and leaves. — Birch Leaf Skelelonizer (Bucculatrix 
canadc'isiscllo), p. 236. 

(9) A bright yellow looper with rust-colored head and with ten 
crinkled black lines along the back. Attacks elm, basswood, 
hickory, apple, etc. — Lime-tree Winter Moth (Erannis tiliaria). 

2. Adult moths white. 

(i) Caterpillars reddish-black with only two pairs of prolegs; 
with three pairs of small tubercles on back; hibernate as egg- 
masses of 20-100 on hranchcs.-^Snow-ivhite Linden Moth 
{Emiomos subs igniar ins), p. 206. 

(2) Dark brown caterpillars, with a lateral row of white hairs 
and bright red tubercles on sixth and seventh adbominal seg- 
ments; hibernate as one-fourth grown caterpillars in nests of 
webbed leaves on tips of trees; adult moth with a tuft of 
brown hairs at tip of abdomen. — Broivn Tail Moth {Enproctis 
chrysorrJuva), p. 200. 

3. Adults are butterflies. Caterpillars large, black, red-marked and 
spiny, feeding in clusters on terminal branches of elm, willow, 
\)0\Aixx.— Spiny Elm Caterpillar {Aglais antiopa). p 176. 

4. Adults are beetles. Adults eating irregular circular holes in elm 
leaves and grubs skeletonizing the under surface. — Elm Leaf Beetle 
{GalcniccUa lutcola), p. 309. 

5. Adults are Saw-flies. 

(i) Larvaj cylindric, coiled, yellowish-white, with a black line 
down the middle of back, feeding on elm, poplar, willow, etc. — 
Elm Saw-fly {Cimbex amcricana), p. 347. 

(2) Larvaj with jet black head and green body, each segment 
except second marked with double parallel rows of dark 
dots; feeding on larch leaves. — Larch Saiv-fly {Lygceonemalus 
erichsonii), p. 346. 

(aa) Boring in trunks and branches. 
(b) Adults are moths. 

1. Whitish caterpillars with distinct spots and tubercles making 
burrows in twigs and larger branches, which often die and project 
above leafy branches. Moths are white with blue and black 
markings. — Leopard Moth (Zctizcra pyrina), p. 237. 

2. Large white or reddish-white caterpillars making large round 
irregular borings in oak, maple and locust. Moth is large, dark 
grey. — Carpenter Worm {Prionoxystiis robinice), p. 238. 



IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CROPS 89 

(bb) Adults arc beetles. 

1. Long-horned or cerambycid beetles. 

(i) Large fleshy legless grubs making broad shallow tunnels in 
sapwood of sugar-maples, often killing limbs. Adult beetle 
brilliantly marked with yellow and black. — Sugar Maple 
Borer {Plagionolus speciosus), p. 323. 

(2) A whitish hairy grub making a central burrow plugged with 
sawdust, and cutting off twigs of maple or oak. — Twig Primer 
{Elaphidion vlUosum), p. 323. 

(3) White flattened legless grubs working under the bark of elm; 
adult a gray beetle with red lines and black spots. — Elm Borer 
(Saperda tridentata) , p. 321. 

(4) White legless grubs making large irregular channels in sap- 
wood and inner bark of poplar; large blackened swollen scars 
on the surface of the trunk and limbs of affected trees. — 
Poplar Borer {Saperda calcarata) tunnels in poplar producing 
rough discolored scars on the trunk. Saperda Candida bores 
into hawthorn, mountain ash, and fruit trees, and Saperda 
vestita into basswood. 

(5) Club-shaped grubs, making irregular ugly scars opening 
into burrows in black locust. Adult beetle is dull black 
brightly marked with golden yellow, and feeds on golden rod 
blossoms. — Locust Borer {Cyllene robinice), p. 321. 

2. Metallic wood borers or Buprestid beetles. 

(i) Large headed flattened legless grubs making shallow tunnels. — 
Flat-headed Borer (Chrysobothris femorata), p. 300. 

(2) A flattened whitish grub with a large flattened head, making 
irregular spiral burrows in the inner bark of birch. — Bronze 
Birch Borer (Agrilus anxius), p. 301. 

(aaa) Sucking the juices from twigs or leaves. 
(b) On the leaves. 

1. Producing terminal galls on white and Norway spruce; branch 
scraggly deformed. — Spruce Gall Aphis {Chermes similis), p. 150. 

2. Producing galls on white and Norway spruce, not terminal, pine- 
apple shaped. — Spruce Gall Aphis {Chermes abietis), p. 149. 

3. Snow-white woolly plant-lice on leaves of larch. — Larch Woolly 
Aphis {Chermes strobilobius). 

[bb) On the bark. 

1. Clusters of woolly aphis on elm. — Woolly Aphis of Elm {Schizoneura 
americana), p. 145. 

2. Reddish woolly bordered bark-lice on under surface of elm leaves. — 
Elm Bark-louse {Gossyparia spuria), p. 130. 

3. Cottony masses attached to brown scales on under side of twigs 
of soft maple, elms, etc. — Cottony Maple Scale {Pulvinaria vitis), 
p. 130. 



QO ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

4. Hemispherical reddish scales mottled with black lines on under 
side of branches of maples. — Terrapin Scale (Lecanium nigrofas- 
ciatuni), p. 129. 

5. Flocculent white masses upon greenbark of cultivated white pine. — 
Pine Bark Aphis {Chermes pinicorlicis) , p. 150. 

6. Twigs of balsam twisted and leaves curled by plant-lice. — Balsam 
Twig Aphis (Mindarus abietimis). 



XVIII. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GREENHOUSE PLANTS 

(a) Minute active white four-winged flies living on the under side of leaves, 
sucking the juices; young are oval, flat and greenish. — White Fly {Aleyrodes vapor- 
ariorum), p. 151. 

(b) Small soft mealy-covered bugs, with eggs enclosed in cottony sacks. — Mealy 
Bugs (Pseudococcus spp.), p. 131. 

(c) Oval, flat or saddle-shaped scales, on leaves of lemons, ferns, oleanders, 
crotQns, etc. — Soft Scale {Lecanium hemisphericum), p. 134. 

(d) Round scales on leaves and twigs of ivy, date palms, etc. — Hard Scale 
(Aspidiotus spp.), p. 134. 

(e) White scales on leaves of Boston fern, aspidistra, etc., causing spotting and 
browning. — Aspidistra Scale {Hemichionaspis aspidistrce), p. 135. 

(/) Green plant-lice, often infesting violets and sucking the juices from the 
leaves, checking the growth. — Green Aphis {Myzus persicce), p. 144. 

(g) Black plant-lice sucking the juices of chrysanthemums. — Black Aphis (Macro- 
siphum sanborni), p. 149. 

(h) Red mites, spinning fine webs on under surface of leaves and sucking the 
juices rendering the leaves sickly yellow. — Red Spider {Tetranychus bimaculatus). 

(i) A small maggot, causing the edges of violet leaves to curl and turn yellow. — 
Violet Gall-fly {Diplosis violicola) . 

(j) A small greenish-white and striped caterpillar, eating lower epidermis of 
chrysanthemums, cinerarias, roses, carnations, etc., and tying the leaves together. — 
Greenhouse Leaf-tyer {Phlyctcenia ferrugalis), p. 210. 

{k) Maggots feeding in flower and leaf buds of greenhouse roses, causing them to 
brown, blacken and die. — Rose Midge (Dasyneura rhodophaga), p. 248. 

(l) Flesh-colored legless grubs attacking roots of cyclamen, gloxinia, primula. — 
Cyclamen Borer {Otiorhynchus sulcatus), p. 336. 

XIX. INSECTS AFFECTING DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

(Consult Insects Affecting Domestic Animals by Osborn, Bull. 5, U. S. Div. Ent.) 

A. Sheep 

(a) Maggots in nostrils and in nasal sinuses, causing catarrh and staggers; 
deposited by a two-winged fly in June and July. — Sheep Bot-fly {(Estrus oms). 

(b) Wool falls off in patches and large scabs form on body with much itching due 
to a mite. — Sheep Scab {Psoroptes communis)^ p. 366. 



IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CROPS QI 

(c) Brownish flattened tick-like insects sucking the blood ; common on lambs in 
spring. — Sheep Tick {Melophagiis ovinus), p. 279. 

B. Cattle 

(a) Swellings or "warbles" along the back in winter; bee-like flies bothering 
cattle in June and July. — Ox-warble (Hypoderma lineaium and H. hovis), p; 255. 

{h) Small flies clustering on base of horns, flanks and belly of cattle in summer, 
causing them much annoyance, — Horn Fly {HcBmatohia serrata), p. 272. 

(c) Slaty-colored sucking lice, often abundant on neck and shoulders of neglected 
cattle. — Short-nosed Ox Louse {Hcematopinus eurysternus), p. 000. Long-nosed Ox 
Louse (Hcematopinus vituli), p. 169. 

(d) "Little red lice" feeding on the rough parts of the skin and on the hairs, 
causing irritation; most abundant in spring. — Biting Cattle Louse {Trichodectes 
scalar is), p. 100. 

(e) Hair falls off in patches and large scabs form — with much itching — due to 
mites. Common Cattle Scab Mites (Psoroptes Communis bovis), Sarcoptic Scab Mite 
(Sarcoptes scabiei bovis), Tail Mange Mite (Chorioptes bovis bovis). (See Farmers' 
Bull. 1017, U. S. Dep. Ag.). 

C. Horses 

(a) Bots attached to wall of stomach — adult fly light brown; does not bite 
but horse is worried; eggs laid on hairs of legs and shoulders. — Horse Bot-fly (Gastro- 
phiius intestinalis) , p. 258. 

(b) Similar to (a) but eggs are attached to hairs of lips and nostrils. — Chin 
Bot-fly (Gastrophilus nasalis) and the Red-tailed Bot-fly (G. hcemorrhoidalis) , p. 259. 

(c) Large black fly that flies swiftly and bites severely, giving much annoyance 
to horses. — Horse Gadfly (Tabanus atratus), p. 252. 

D. Hogs 

(a) Gray sucking lice, often quite large. — Hog Louse (Hcematopinus urlus), p. 
169. 

E. Poultry 

(a) Yellowish or reddish mites infesting hens and chicks at night; piercing the 
skin and sucking the blood, causing much irritation and often death. — Chicken Mite 
(Dermanyssus gallince), p. 364. 

(b) Small pale yellow active insects feeding on rough parts of skin and bases 
of hairs and feathers, causing much irritation. — Common Hen Louse (Menopon 

pallidum), p. 100. 

(c) Minute mites burrowing under the scales of foot, leg, comb and beak, pro- 
ducing "scaly leg" with much irritation. Contagious. — Itch Mite (Sarcoptes 

mutans), p. 365- 

(d) Small mites causing the feathers to break off. Contagious. — Depluming 

mite (Sarcoptes gallincs). 



92 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

XX. INSECTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
A. Annoying the Inmates 

(a) Slender two-winged insects; only the females bite or pierce the skin; larvas 
and pupae live in stagnant water. — Common Mosquito {Culex pipiens), p. 243. 

(b) Similar to (a) but larger and with wings spotted. — Malarial Mosquito {Ano- 
pheles macidi pennis) , p. 244. 

(<■) Two-winged insects, with four black lines on thorax; they lap but do not 
pierce; eggs laid on manure or decaying organic matter. — House Fly (Musca do- 
mestica), p. 270, 

{d) Similar to (c) but with six black lines on thorax, and with piercing mouth- 
parts. — Stable Fly (Stomoxys calcitrans), p. 271. 

(e) Compressed, wingless long-legged insects with piercing and sucking mouth- 
parts, hiding in bedding and clothing; eggs laid among hairs of cat or dog. — Cat 
and Dog Flea (Pulex serraticeps), p. 280. 

(/) Reddish-brown, flat bugs with buggy odor, hiding in day time in cracks, but 
active at night; with piercing and sucking mouth-parts. — Bed-hugs {Cimex lectu- 
larius), p. 167. 

B. Feeding on or Destroying Clothing, Carpets, Upholstery, Etc. 

(a) Tiny dusky moths, laying eggs in furs or woolens, the larvje eating holes in 
them. — Case-making Clothes Moth {Tinea pellionella), p. 236. Webbing Clothes Moth 
{Tinea hiselliella) , p. 237. Tapestry Clothes Moth {Trichophaga tapetzella), p. 237. 

{b) Small oval red, black and white beetles, whose grubs are hairy, feeding on 
carpets on underside, usually along a crack of the floor. — Buffalo Carpet Beetle 
{Anthrenus scrophtdarixe), p. 291. 

{c) Tiny active wingless insects with silvery appearance, and with three long 
feelers at hind end of body, feeding on linen or paper containing starch, sugar, etc. 
Silver-fish {Lepisma saccharlna), p. 95. 

C. Feeding on Food Products 

(a) Active wary light-brown insects with a "roachy" odor, found in pantries 
and bakeries; several species but the most common is the Croton-bug or German 
Cockroach {Ectobia germanica), p. 105. 

{b) Brown beetles, one-third inch long, whose grubs are brown above, white below 
and covered with long brown hairs; found where meats, skins and feathers are 
kept. — Larder Beetle {Dcrmestes lardarius), p. 291. 

(c) Large black flies with bluish abdomen and with black spines on thorax; 
eggs laid on meat. — Blow or Meat Fly {Calliphora vomitoria), p. 273. 

{d) Little red ants that have their nests in the wall or beneath the flooring. — 
House Ants {Monomorium pharaonis), p. 361. 

(e) Black ants and pavement ants living outdoors sometimes invade houses. — 
Black Ants {Monomorium minutum), p. 361. 



PART III 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON 

INSECTS 

THE COMMON ORDERS AND GROUPS OF INSECTS 

SYNOPSIS OF THE ORDERS OF INSECTS REFERRED TO IN THE CLASS 

BOOK 



Aptera Group. 



I. Thysanura. 
II. Collembola. 



Neuropteroida Group. 



Orthopteroida Group. 



Hemipteroida Group 



Dipteroida Group. 



I 



III. Plecoptera. 

IV. Ephemerida. 
V. Odonata. 

VI. Neuroptera. 
VII. Mecoptera. 
VIII. Trichoptera. 

IX. Mallophaga. 
X. Isoptera. 
XI. Corrodentia. 
XII. Blattoidea. 

XIII. Mantoidea. 

XIV. Phasmoidea. 
XV. Dermaptera. 

XVI. Orthoptera. 
XVII. Thysanoptera. 

XVIII. Homoptera. 
XIX. Hemiptera. 
XX. Siphunculata. 
XXI. Lepidoptera. 
XXII. Coleoptera. 

XXIII. Diptera. 

XXIV. Siphonaptera. 
XXV. Hymenoptera. 



A. With two wings; mouth-parts formed for sucking or piercing; metamor- 
phosis complete.— /)/Pr£i?^ (Flies). 

93 



94 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

AA. With four wings. 

B. Mouth-parts formed for biting. 

C. Upper wings horny; metamorphosis complete. — COLEOPf^^^ 
(Beetles), p. 280. 
CC. Upper wings parchment-like; lower wings folded under the 
upper; metamorphosis incomplete. — ORTHOPTeROIDA 
Group (Locusts, etc.), P- 102. 
CCC. Upper wings membranous with many veins. — NEUROP- 
TEROIDA Group (Nerve- winged insects), p. 96. 
BB. Mouth-parts formed for sucking and biting; wings with few cross veins 
and similar in texture; metamorphosis complete. — HYMENOP- 
TERA (Bees, etc.), p. 343. 
BBB. Mouth-parts formed for sucking; wings covered with scales; metamor- 
phosis covaT^l&te.—LEPI DOPTERA (Butterflies and moths), p. 169. 
BBBB. Mouth-parts formed for piercing. 

C. Beak jointed; palpi absent; last joint of tarsi not bladder-like, 
D. Wings of uniform texture; beak arising from the hinder 
edge of under side of the head; metamorphosis incomplete. 
—HOMOPTERA , p. 1 2 2 . 
DD. Fore wings leathery at base, membranous at tip; beak 
arising from the front of the head; metamorphosis incom- 
plete.— .STEikf/PrE/?^ (True Bugs), p. 158. 
CC. Beak unjointed, palpi present; last joint of tarsi bladder-like, 
and without claws; wings similar; metamorphosis incomplete. — 
THYSANOPTERA (Thrips), p. 118. 
AAA. Wingless. 

B. Mouth-parts formed for biting; louse-like insects. 

C. Mouth-parts retracted within the head; no metamorphosis. — 
APTERA Group, p. 94. 
CC. Mouth-parts not retracted within the head. 

D. Antennae with many segments; metamorphosis incomplete. 
—CORRODENTIA (Book-lice), p. 103. 
DD. Antennae with not more than five segments; metamorpho- 
sis incomplete. — MALLOPHAGA (Biting-lice), p. 100. 
BB. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. 

C. Tarsus with a single hook-like claw; with a fleshy unjointed 
beak; parasitic on mammals {Parasitica). — SIPHUNCULATA, 
. p. 167 
CC. Tarsus five- jointed; body compressed; metamorphosis complete. — • 
SIPHONAPTERA (Fleas). 

The Aptera Group 
Chief Orders and Families: 

A. Abdomen with at least 10 segments; antennae many-jointed; usually with 
terminal abdominal appendages. — Thysanura Order. 
B. Body covered with scales. — Lepistnidce. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 



95 



BB. Body not covered with scales. 

C. Caudal appendages many-jointed. — Campodeidce. 
CC. Caudal appendages sickle-shaped. — Japygida. 
A A. Abdomen with not more than six segments; antennae with not more than 
eight joints; no caudal appendages. — Collemhola Order. 
B. Ventral spring present. 

C. Spring on penultimate abdominal segment. 
D. Abdomen globular. — Sminthurida. 
DD Abdomen cylindrical. — E^itomohryida. 
CC. Spring on antepenult abdominal segment. — Podurida. 
BB. Ventral spring absent. — AphoruridcB. 
Of the above Apterous families only one, the Lepismidcs of the Thysanura, 
contains forms that are of economic importance. 

ORDER THYSANURA 
LEPISMID^ (Fish-moths) 

The Fish-moth, Silver Fish, or "SUcker" [Lepisma saccharina 
Linn.) sometimes does injury to books, 
papers, labels and starched clothing. It 
shuns light and is quite active. 

Adult. — A minute, glistening, scaly, fish- 
like active insect, wingless, 3^-^ inch long, 
body tapering to hind end where are three 
long, bristle-shaped appendages; antennae 
prominent; coxae strongly developed; biting 
mouth parts. 

Another species, Lepisma domesHca Pack., 
is found in bakeries and mills in some locali- 
ties. It has dusty markings on its upper 
surface and is 3^^ inch long. 

Control. — Frequent use of fresh insect 
powder, sodium fluoride, or a poison-bait 
of sweetened gluey paste and white arsenic 
on bits of cardboard. 




PODURED^ (Springtails) 



Fig. 50. — The silver fish 
(Lepisma saccharina). (After 
Marlatt.) 

Two species may be noted in passing: 
Achorutes armatum sometimes attacking seedhngs causing disfigure- 
ment and loss, and A. nivicola often abundant in maple sap in early 
spring. Both species are minute, and have some of the habits of 
flea-beetles (Fig. 51). 



96 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



The Neuropteroida Group 



Certain orders of aquatic insects have a superficial resemblance 
of wing venation, and were formerly grouped together into one order, 

the Neuroptera. Of the six main Orders 
three have incomplete metamorphosis, viz., 
Plecoptera, Ephemerida and Odonata, and 
three complete metamorphosis, viz., Tri- 
choptera, Neuroptera and Mecoptera. 

It is probable, therefore, that the first 
three orders are not so highly evolved as the 
last three. The former are lower than the 
Orthoptera, while the latter are higher and 
come between the Hemiptera and the 
Lepidoptera. 

Chief Orders:^ 

The Neuropteroida (or nerve-winged) group of 
insects includes six main orders which may be sepa- 
rated as follows: 

A. Lower wings folded in plaits under the 
upper. 
B. Wings covered with hairs; tarsi 
5-jointed; metamorphosis complete. — 
Trichoptera (Caddice-flies). 
BB. Wings not covered with hairs. 
C. Tarsi 5-jointed; wings equal and with many veins and cross-veins; 
mouth-parts well developed; metamorphosis complete. — Neurop- 
tera (Dobson flies, Aphis lions, etc.). 
CC. Tarsi 3-jointed; hind wings larger than fore-wings; with caudal 
filaments; biting mouth-parts poorly developed; metamorphosis 
incomplete. — Plecoptera (Stone-flies) (Fig. 54). 
AA. Lower wings not folded under the upper. 

B. Head prolonged into a beak; antennae long; metamorphosis com,- 
plele. — Mecoptera (Scorpion-flies). 
BB. Head not prolonged into a beak; antennae inconspicuous; metamor- 
phosis incomplete. 

1 Handlirsch arranges these orders into groups as follows: 

Odonata Sub-class Libelluloidea. 

Plecoptera (Ephemerida) Sub-class Ephemeroidea. 

Plecoptera Sub-class Perloidea. 

Neuroptera | 

Megaloptera [ Sub-class Neuropteroidea. 

Raphidioidea J 
Panorpatae ] 

Trichoptera \ Sub-class Panorpoidea. 

Lepidoptera 




Fig. 51. — The snow 
flea (Achorutes nivi- 
cola). Enlarged greatly. 
{After Folsom.) 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 



97 



C. Abdomen with 2 or 3 long filaments; lower wings much smaller 
than upper; antenna; short.—Ep/icnicrida (May-flies) (Fig. 53). 
CC. Abdomen without jointed filaments; wings about equal in size; 
antennae short. Odonata (Dragon-flies). 

The larvae of most of the Neuropteroid insects are aquatic and are of little 
economic importance in agriculture. They are of importance, however, in fish- 
culture. In the Stone-flies Newcomer has recently reported that several species of 
Taniopteryx (especially T. pacifica) with well developed mouth-parts cause consider- 
able injury to foliage and fruit in Central Washington. 





Fig. 52. — May-fly (Hexagenia), adult. 
(After Folsom.) 



Fig. 53. — M ay-fly, nymph. 



LARVAL FORMS OF THE NEUROPTEROIDA 

A. Body cylindrical, caterpillar-like. — Mccoplcra. 
AA. Body more or less depressed, not caterpillar-like. 

B. Mandibles united with corresponding maxilla?. — Neuropiera. 
BB. Mandibles separate from corresponding maxilla;. 

C. Body encased in a shell of gravel, etc. — Trichoplera. 
CC. Body not encased in a shell. 

D. Abdomen with external lateral gills and terminated by 2 or 
3 long gill processes. — Ephcmerida (Fig. 53). 



gS ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

DD. Abdomen without external lateral gills. 

E. Lower lip strong extensile and furnished with a pair of 
opposable hooks; abdomen terminated by 3 leaf -like 
tracheal gills, or with 5 spine-like appendages. — 
Odonata. 
EE. Lower lip not extensile and without hooks; caudal 
filaments and antennae long and slender; thorax with 
3 pairs of tracheal gills. — Plecoptera. 

On account, however, of their common occurrence the economic 
entomologist should know a little at least regarding their habits and 
life-history. 

Stone-flies (Plecoptera). — The nymphs live under stones in swift 
streams, are flattish, and have tracheal gills, long legs, cerci and 




Fig. 54. — An adult stone-fly {Pteronarcys regalis). 

Folsom). 



Slightly reduced. {After 



antennae. The adults are greyish and have prominent wings. The 
hind wings are the larger and when at rest are folded under the front 
ones. The larvae furnish food for fishes (Figs. 54 and 55). 

May-flies (Ephemerida). — May-flies are well-known insects, being 
attracted to lights in immense numbers in early summer. They have 
large delicate wings and 2 or 3 long caudal filaments. The fore wings 
are much larger than the hind ones. The nymphs live at the bottoms of 
bodies of water, and have long legs, caudal filaments and prominent 
tracheal gills. They mature in i to 3 years, and furnish abundant 
food for fishes. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 99 



Dragon-flies and Damsel-flies (Odonata). — These insects are also 
well known. They are rapid fliers over bodies of water, feeding on 
flies and mosquitoes. The nymphs live at the 
bottom of ponds and streams. They have 
long legs, and are flat and spiny. Dragon-flies 
hold their wings horizontally when at rest, and 
the nymphs have rectal respiration; while the 
damsel-flies hold their wings vertically when at 
rest, and the nymphs have three caudal tra- 
cheal gills (Fig. 56). 

Caddice-flies (Trichoptera). — The larvce of 
these insects are known as caddice-worms, and 
live in water within protecting cases of fine 
gravel, leaves, sticks, stalks or small shells, 
fastened together by threads of silk. They 
crawl about carrying their cases with them. 
When full-grown they change to pupce within 
the cases and at length emerge as four-winged 
flies. During summer immense numbers are 
attracted to lights at night. The wings are 
hairy, and, at rest, are held like a roof over the back. The eggs are 
usually laid on water plants. 




Fig. 55. — Nymph of 
s t o n e-fl y (Pteronarcys 
regalis). 





Fig. 56. — Dragon-fly (Libellula pulchella). Last nymphal skin and wings. Slightly 

reduced. {After Folsom.) 

Dobson-flies, Lace-wings, Ant-lions (Neuroptera). — Dohson-flies 
are large insects with prominent biting mouth-parts and wings. Their 
larvae live under stones in swift streams, and have rather conspicuous 
tracheal gills. They become full-grown in about three years. 




lOO ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Lace-wings are delicate pale-green insects with finely veined wings. 
The larvae have large jaws, and owing to their habit of feeding upon 

aphids are called aphis-lions. The pupae are 
enclosed in a white cocoon of silk (Fig. 57). 

Ant-lions are predaceous larvae, which lie 
in wait for their prey at the bottom of funnel- 
shaped pits. The adults have narrow delicate 
wings. 
(Chrysopa). siightirr'2 Scorpion-flies (Mecoptera.).— Scorpion-flies 
duced. {After Foisom.) have their head prolonged into a beak. The 

larvae live in the ground and are caterpillar- 
like. Both larva and adult are carnivorous. 



ORDER MALLOPHAGA (BITING LICE) * 

Chief Families and Genera: 

A. Antennae filamentous, exposed, 3- or 5-jointed; maxillary palpi absent; 
mandibles vertical; middle and hind segments of thorax fused. 
B. Antennae 3-jointed; tarsi with a single claw; infesting mammals. 
— TrichodectidcB. 

Genus: Trichodectes. 
BE. Antennae 5-jointed; tarsi with two claws; infesting birds. — PhilopteridcE. 
Genera: Docophorus, Lipeurus, Nirmus, Goniodes, Goniocotes. 
A A. Antennae clavate or capitate, concealed, 4-jointed; maxillary palpi 4- 
jointed; mandibles horizontal; middle and hind segments of thorax sepa- 
rated by a suture. 
J B. Tarsi with a single claw; infesting mammals. — Gyropidce. 
Genus: Gyro pus. 
BB. Tarsi with two claws; infesting birds. — Liotheidce. 
Genera: Menopon, Trinoton. 
(Consult Bull. 5i n.s. Divison of Etomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, by Osborn) 

Although most commonly found on poultry, Biting Lice some- 
times infest the larger domestic animals. They do not suck blood 
but feed on the rough parts of the skin and at the base of hairs and 
feathers, causing considerable irritation. Young chicks frequently 
suffer severely from their attacks. 

The most abundant species found on fowls is the common hen 
louse {Menopon pallidum) y a pale yellow active insect, 3^^5 inch long, 
with six legs (Fig. 58). 

The eggs or ''nits" are oval objects attached to the vanes and 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS lOI 



barbs of the feathers, usually on the down feathers. They hatch in 
8 to lo days and become full grown in 2 to 3 weeks. 

Dampness, filth and warm weather favor their increase. 

Control. — {a) Sanitary surroundings with access to a dust bath. 
{h) Dusting with lice powder, such as insect powder, or one pre- 
pared as follows: 3 parts gasoline, i part crude carbolic acid (90- 
95 per cent.), or i part cresol. Mix together and add, with stirring, 
plaster-of-Paris to take up all the moisture (about 4 qts. to i qt. of 
liquid), {c) Dusting with sodium fluoride. 
All remedies should be applied more than 
once. 

Following are the common Mallophaga in- 
festing domesticated birds: 

A. Feather-lice Infesting Chickens: 

1. Head nearly square, abdomen not con- 
spicuously marked, 3^^ 5 inch long. — 
Gonio cotes hologaster Nitzsch (Lesser 
Chicken Louse). 

2. Head almost circular in front, nar- 
rowed behind, thorax small; head, 
thorax, and legs yellowish; white 
stripes on segment of abdomen, J^ 
inch long. — Goniocotes ahdominalis ^^^• 
Piaget (Larger Chicken Louse). 

3. Yellowish with black markings, uncommon. — Goniocotes bur- 
netii Pack. 

4. Smooth and shining, head squarish, }^iQ inch long, tawny, pubes- 
cent. — Goniodes dissimilis Nitzsch. 

5. Body elongated, smooth and shining, black margins. — Lipeurus 
variabilis Nitzsch. 

6. Yellowish, slender louse, J^o inch long, common. — Menopon 
pallidum Nitzsch (Hen or Chicken Louse) . 

B. Feather-lice of Ducks and Geese: 

1. Head and thorax red with dark bands; abdomen whitish at 
middle, brown at sides, J.^ inch long. — Docophorus icterodes 
Nitzsch. 

2. White, smooth, and shining, on goose. — Lipeurus tadorncB 
Denny. 




58. — Chicken louse. 
{Menopon.) 



I0 2 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

3. Large, J^ inch long, elongated, yellowish, head cone-pointed, on 
ducks. — Lipeurus squalidus Nitzsch. 

4. Large well-marked louse, J^ inch long, on ducks. — Trinotum 
luridum Nitzsch. 

5. White, almost transparent louse, on goose. — Trinotum lituratum 
Nitzsch. 

C. Feather-lice of Turkey: 

1. Head with hind angles extending backward into bristly styles; 
3-^ inch long. — Goniodes stylifer Nitzsch. 

2. Yellowish, elongated, flat pointed body, 3^f inch long. — Lipeurus 
poly trapezius Nitzsch. 

Orthopteroid Insects 

The old Order Orthoptera is now broken into several new Orders by 
the elevation of certain Families to ordinal rank. The relationship 
of these and other allied orders is shown by the following grouping: 
I. Sub-class: Orthopteroida. 

Orders: Orthoptera, Phasmoidea and the aUied orders Dermap- 
tera and Thysanoptera. 
IL Sub-class: Blattaeformia. 

Orders: Mantoidea, Blattoidea and the allied orders Tsoptera, 
Corrodentia and Mallophaga. 

Chief Economic Orthopteroid Orders: 

A. Hind femora large and fitted for jumping. — Orthoptera (Locusts, Crickets, etc. 
AA. Hind femora not large, not fitted for jumping. 

B. Body elongate; abdomen without movable forceps. 

C. Front legs spined and fitted for grasping. — Mantoidea (Mantids). 
CC. Front legs not formed for grasping, legs long and slender. — PhaS' 
moidea {Walking sticks). 
BB. Body elongate; abdomen with movable forceps; fore wings short and 
horny, hind wings nearly circular. — Dermaptera (Earwigs). 
BBB. Body oval, flattened; legs fitted for running. — Blattoidea (Cockroaches). 

ORDER ISOPTERA (WHITE ANTS) 

Family TERMITID^ 

This order is characterized by incomplete metamorphosis, biting 
mouth-parts and net-veined wings that fold flat upon the back. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS IO3 

There is but one Family — the Termitidce. The members of each 
species live in communities in the ground or sometimes on trees and 
include males, females and neuter workers and soldiers. They feed 
upon vegetable fibre, and are often injurious to furniture, books and 
wooden structures. 

Termites are most abundant in tropical or semi-tropical countries. 
A few species such as Leucotermes flavipes are found as far north as 
Canada. 

ORDER CORRODENTIA (BOOK-LICE) 

Family PSOCID^ 

These insects have biting mouth-parts and are either wingless 
or with roof-like wings. The Family FsocidcB includes the minute 
book-lice which are often injurious to old books, herbaria and insect 
collections. The most common species is Atropos divinatoria, a minute, 
pale-colored wingless insect. It feeds upon the paste of book bindings 
and upon decaying vegetable and animal matter. 

Control. — When severe infestations occur, fumigate with sulphur 
(2 lb. to 1000 cu. ft.) or with hydrocyanic acid gas. 

ORDER BLATTOIDEA (COCKROACHES) 

FamUy BLATTID^ 

Genera and Species: 

A. Last ventral segment of female abdomen plane not compressed; fore 
femora rarely provided with spines. 
B. Sub-genital stylets present in the males, upper wings of females short. 
— Ischnopiera. 

I. pennsylvanica brown, sides of pronotum yellow. 
BB. Sub-genital stylets absent in the males. Upper wings of both sexes 
long. — Blattella = Ectohia = Phyllodromia. 
B. germanica (Croton bug), length 3^^ inch, 
A A. Last ventral segment of female abdomen compressed and divided; fore 
femora spined. 
B. Wing-covers not reaching tip of abdomen. — Blatta. 
B. orientalis (Oriental Cockroach). 
BB. Wing-covers reaching beyond the abdomen. ^ — Periplanela. 

C. Wing-covers much exceeding abdomen. — P. americana. 
CC. Wing-covers but little exceeding abdomen; a bright yellow 
stripe on basal half of their outer margin. — P. ausiralasice. 



I04 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Several injurious species of cockroaches occur: (i) American 
(M)ckroach, (2) Australian cockroach, (3) Oriental cockroach, and (4) 
German cockroach or (Proton Bug. 

I. American Cockroach {Periplamia amcricanah.), a native species, 
is a large dark brown insect 1^2 inches long, with well-developed wings 
in holh sexes, i,'2~2 inches long; thorax with an obscure yellow border. 
iOggs held within a capsule until hatched. Duration of life-cycle 
about a year. Nocturnal. 




Fh,. 50. -The oriental roacli {Hlalld on'rnlalis) : a, fi'inali"; h. male. All 
natural size. {After Marlall, U. S. linr. lint.) 



2. Australian Cockroach (Periplancta anstralasice L.), ij:^ inches 
long; resembles ])reeeding but the yellow band on thorax is much 
brighter and more definitely limited. Uj)|)er wings have a dash of 
yellow on each side. yVbundant in the south. 

3. Oriental Cockroach {Blatta oricn/alis ¥o\.) or "black beetle," 
is a nearly wingless dark brown or black robust form, about an inch 
long- the male with wing cases one-half to three-fourths length of 
abdomen; female wingless. Notably gregarious and larger than the 
Crotoii iUig (l^'ig. (^()). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 105 

4. German Cockroach or Croton Bug {Edohia germanica L.), has 
a light brown thorax marked with two dark brown stripes. Both 
sexes with well-developed wings. Active and wary, relatively small, 
J^g inch long. 

All the roaches have a fcx'tid roachy odor, and are said to feed on 
the bedbug (Fig. 60). They are particularly abundant in pantries, 
kitchens and bakeries and they feed on almost any kind of dead animal 
matter and cereal products. The eggs are produced in a brown cap- 
sule which is often carried about for a time before deposited in a crev- 
ice or nook. 

Control. — A bait of powdered borax mixed with sweetened chocolate; 
a trap of flour and plaster-paris and water; fumigation with hydro- 




pic 60. — The German roach (Eclohia germanica) : a, first stage; h, second stage; 
c, third stage; d, fourth stage; e, adult; /, adult female with egg case; g, egg-case, 
enlarged; h, adult with wings spread. All natural size except g. (From Riley.) 

cyanic acid gas. Dust the runways or hiding places with sodium 
fluoride mixed with flour by means of a dust gun or blower. Boric 
acid is also effective. 



ORDER MANTOIDEA (PRAYING MANTIDS) 

Family MANTIDiE 

The Praying Mantids are predaceous insects and for centuries 
have been looked upon as uncanny creatures both in the old and new 
worlds. The most common American species is Siagmomantis Carolina, 
but this form does not breed normally north of southern New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania and Ohio. In 1899, however, the European species 



I06 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

(Mantis religiosa Linn.) was found in New York State, and in 1914 
in Ontario. 

The adult forms. are elongated, with large grasping forelegs, long 
prothorax and a small transverse head. The eggs are laid in shingled 
masses on twigs, coated with a hard gummy substance. 

ORDER PHASMOroEA (WALKING-STICKS) 

Family PHASMID^ 

This Family is represented by the common Walking-stick insect 
{Diapheromera femorata, Say), a peculiar creature with long slender body 
and legs. The outer wings are either wanting or very short. 

Life-history. — The eggs are dropped singly in autumn from the shrubs 
and rest on the ground all winter among the leaves, hatching in early 
summer. The nymphs feed upon leaves, and reach maturity in late 
summer and early fall, when they resemble the twigs upon which they 
rest. Occasionally this insect becomes injurious on hazel and beech. 

ORDER DERMAPTERA = EUPLEXOPTERA (EARWIGS) 

European Earwig (Forficula auricular i a lAnn.). — This insect is held 
in check in Europe by parasites and other natural agencies but the 
practical absence of these checks allows it to multiply rapidly in 
America wherever it has been introduced. At Newport, R. I., it is a 
serious pest of Lima-beans, dahlias, early roses, chrysanthemums, 
clovers, grasses, etc. 

The adult females hibernate in the soil, and the white eggs are laid 
in the soil. The nymphs are night feeders. They are white at first 
but gradually darken in color to a steel grey — 4. instars. Adults ap- 
pear about the middle of July. They are rich reddish brown with 
yellow brown wing-covers and legs; about % inch long. The forceps 
is nearly straight in the female, but curved in the male. 

Control. — Use poison bait before July ist and spray plants with 
arsenate of lead; collect by traps. 

Labia minor Linn., also an adventive earwig from Europe, is widely 
distributed in U. S. and Canada. Not of economic importance. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS I07 

ORDER ORTHOPTERA (LOCUSTS, GRASSHOPPERS AND CRICKETS) 

FAMILIES 

A. Antennae shorter than body. — Acrididce {Locusts or Short-horned Grass- 
hoppers) . 
AA. Antennae longer than body. 

B. Tarsi 4- jointed. — Locustidce (Long-horned Grasshoppers). 
BB. Tarsi 3- jointed. — Gryllidce (Crickets). 

AcRiDiDiE (Locusts or Short-Horned Grasshoppers) 
Sub -families, Genera and Species (Figs. 61-63). 

Sub-families: 

A. Pronotum extending over abdomen; claws of tarsus without pulvillus; 
size small. — Tettigince. 



C€K 




g.pl. 
' oyp. 

Fig. 61. — Abdomen of female Melanoplus hivittatus. A, lateral view; B, 
dorsal view; C, central view; D, egg guide; au., the auditory organ; sp., spiracle; 
ovp., ovipositor; g.pl., genital plate; p.pl., podical plate; cer., cercus. {After Lugger.) 



A A. Pronotum not extending over abdomen; claws of tarsus with pulvillus; 
size larger, 

B. Prosternum with tubercle. — Acridince. 
BB. Prosternum without tubercle. 

C. Vertex and front of head meeting at an acute angle. — Tryxalina. 
CC. Vertex and front rounded. — (Edipodince. 



jo8 



IH'ONOMIC I'.N rOMOl-OC.Y 



(.Iffura oj the rclliniihr: 

A. Anlcniur i .• joiiilcd ;iii<l pioiiolum loimdcd. I'^alracJi'uitd, 
A A. Anlcniur i ^^ i .| joinlcil; pioiiol iim lioi i/oiilal. Tttlix. 
AAA. Am1(Mmi;i' j.v- jointed; |>r()iu)lum liori/.oiilid. Tclti^'tdca. 
(l''or sptrirs sit nhilchlcv's Orlliof'hru of Indiami.) 
ii'tnriii of tlif Acridiuw: 

A. Willis as long or longer than (lu- abdomen. 

|{. rronoluin sK>i)ing from median earina; ("xl remit y of ahdonun in males 
not swolliMi. A<ri(h'inii or S( liistocrnit. 
HU. I'ronolnm ll;ill(in(l; e\licmilN t)f abdomen in mail's swollen. — 
.l/(/(/;/('/'//rs. 



A . 3^^- 




Vh:. h 



Al)di>inen t>f male Miliinol'l us hirillnlus. A, lali-ial \ irw ; />', dorsal view; 
( ', vfiUral \ lew. (.1 //(•;■ l.l<l^^l(■^■.) 



S f>(( its 

A. 

AA. 



.S'/>(< Its 
A 



A A 



()/ .1< lidium: 

Si/.e large; antenna* rather sliorl. .1. amcrhtitui. 
Si/e medium; antiMina' longiM'. 

1>. Color yelK>wish brown oi' i»li\i" green. .1. oliihutui. 
WW. Color rusty brown; uo yeIK>wisli slripi- on dorsum. .1. rii}>i\^inos<i. 
of Mcliinof'liis: 
Api'x of last x'entral segment of mali- disliiutly notilied (I'ig. (\0 • 

W. Length of body to tip oi wing-covers 20-35 mm. — M. spniHS. 
1U>. Length of body to tip oi wing eovers ^^-2(1 mm. -M. allani.w 
Apex of last ventral segment of male entire, ov at least obscurely notched. 

W. Anal ii-rei enlargi^l at api-x. M . hivilhilns. 
lib. Anal cerci tapering. 

('. Species o{ medium si/e; anal lerci much nai rowed, but without a 
n<>tch. .1/ . femur rubnini. 
('('. Species of large si/.e; anal cerci suihlenly narrowed, making a 
promimnt right angled notih on lower side. — M. diffcrcnl'itilis. 



CLASSTFTrATTON AND DESPRIPTTON OF COMMON TNSErTR TOQ 

(icHmi of the 'Vryxalimr: 

A. I''()V(;oIiL' of vertex [)r('soii(, ;in«l visihUt froni above. I.aleial (:itiii;e of 
j>r()iu)Luni incurved. Slcnuhothnis < iirli /tenuis. 
AA. I'oveoltc absent; lateral carina- nearly parallel. — Chrysochrdon (onsl)irsnni. 
Genera and Species of (luUfxxHtKr: 
A. Wings witJi tlu; disk yellow. 

I{. Apical half of wing dusky. 

C. Dorsal aspect of liead with a slight median carina which is (juile 
prominent in the central iovcoUi.- J'lnco/Holoph us sordidus. 
(X'. Dorsal aspect of head without median carina; central foveola 
less distinct. — Chorlophaga viridijasciala. 
lili. Willi a dark band across the wings. Sph(irti^!,eni()n tcijUitle. 
A A. Wings wilh (he disk black. Dissosleira caroHtui. 
AAA. Wing.s transi)aren( willi dark V(;ins; Icgmina smoky brown willi darker 
spots and yellowish bloh hcs on sides. — Camnula pcUiicida. 







Pig. 6.^ 'I'ij) of male abfjonicn of Mrliinitplus, dorsal view. A, M . jrtnur YHhrum; 
Ji, M . sprclus; C , M . alliuiis; I), M. ilijlrrculidiis. 



In the West tlic Rocky Mountain Locust (Mdanoplus sprelus) 
did, and occasionally docs, |)roducc much injury lo [^rain and other 
crops. Another sj)ecies more widely distributed is M . atlanis which 
sometimes becomes migratory. The Red-legged Locust or (Grasshop- 
per {M . fcmur-rubrum) , the 'JVo-striped Locust {M . biviUatus) and tlie 
l*ellucid Locust {Camnula pellucida) in the Last and the DifTerential 
Locust {M . dijjercntiaiis) in Ihi; South are the si)ecies that do most 
injury. 

Red-legged Locust or Grasshopper {MrJanoplus femur -ruhnim 
J)e(i.). This locust is usually the most abundant form in the i*]asl, 
and is most numerous in low grounds and ( ullivaled fields where vege- 
tation is more or less rank (I'ig. 64). 

Adult. — Of medium size, about an inch long; reddish brown in color; 
tegmina sometimes without spots but usually sjwtted, surpassing 
the hind femora, which are reddish brown; hind tibia; red with black 



no 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



spines; cerci of male narrowing from lip to base and subgenital plate 
narrower at apex than at base. 





Fig, 64. — Red-legged grasshopper (Melanoplus femur -rubr 71m) : Above, adult 
male; below, adult female. About twice natural size. {After W. R. Walton, U. S. 
Bur. Ent.) 




Fig. 65. — Locust ovipositing; egg pod in ground at right. Enlarged one-half. 
{After Gibson, Ent. Circ. 5, Dept. Agric, Ottawa.) 

£gg5.^Deposited in pod-like masses in the ground; oblong-oval. 
Nymphs, — Vary in size according to age and month; all stages of 
developing wings; grey to yellow; five moults. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS III 



Life-history. — Nymphs hatch from eggs in spring; these mature in 
August and September, when eggs are laid in the ground and over- 
winter there (Figs. 65 and 66). 

The Lesser Migratory Locust (Mela- 
noplus atlanis Riley). — A native Ameri- 
can species; often abundant in Eastern 
Canada, causing serious injury. Com- 
pared with M. femur-rubrum the fe- 
male has a yellow under surface, and 
more distinctly banded hind femora, 
and the male has the apex of the sub- 
genital plate notched, the cerci shorter 
and less tapering, and longer tegmina 
which are also more distinctly spotted. 
It has a distinct patch of black on the neck or collar. Egg deposition 
occurs from July to September. Mature forms appear from July ist, 
and are often abundant in open sandy regions with sparse vegetation. 




Fig. 66. — Egg pod of locust 
opened to show arrangement of 
eggs; individual eggs at side, 
natural size. {After Gibson, Ent. 
Circ. 5, Dept. Agric, Ottawa.) 




Fig. 67. — Lesser migratory grasshopper (Melanoplus atlanis): Above, adult 
male; below, adult female. About twice natural size. {After W. R. Walton, U. S. 
Bur. Ent.) 



The nymphs undergo five moults; the eggs are deposited in the ground 
in small pod-like capsules, and hatch in the spring (Fig. 67). 



112 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Differential Locust {Melanoplus diferentialis Uhler). — This locust 
is larger than those described above, about i^i inches long, and is dark 
brownish-green or oKve-brown in color. The hind legs are yellow with 
black basal tibial ring and black spines. The subgenital plate short 
and broad, and the cerci of male boot-shaped. ' It is fond of the Greater 
Rag-weed. It is a southern form. 





Fig. 68. — Two-striped grasshopper {Melanoplus bivittatus): Above, adult male; 
below, adult female. Twice natural size. (After W. R. Walton, U. S. Bur. Ent.) 



Two-striped Locust {Melanoplus bivittatus Say). — This locust is 
not so large as the Differential locust, being about ij^ inches long, 
and is dull olive-brown above and yellowish beneath. A narrow yel- 
lowish stripe runs along each side from the eye to the tip of the teg- 
men. The hind femora are yellow, and the hind tibiae coral red with 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS II3 

black spines. The cerci of the male are stout, and two lobed; the 
subgenital plate is narrow. The young and newly transformed adults 
are greenish (Fig. 68). Its transformations are later than those of 
M. atlanis. 

Clear-winged Locust (Camnula pellucida Scudder). — This locust 
occasionally does serious injury in the West, and frequents high dry 
soil. It is of a light brown color; the tegmina are smoky brown with 
darker spots and yellowish blotches on the sides and a yellowish brown 
stripe along each humeral angle. The wings are transparent and pellucid 
with dark veins. Body of male 19 mm. long, of female 22 mm. It 
is often associated with M. atlanis in the East, and is the earliest of the 
grasshoppers (Fig. 69). 




^.f-^^^ 



Fig. 69. — Pellucid or clear- winged grasshopper {Camnula pellucida): Adult female. 
About twice natural size. {After W. R. Walton, U. S. Bur. Ent.) 

Carolina Locust {Dissosteira Carolina Linn.). — This locust is larger 
than the preceding species and is of a pepper-and-salt color, with varia- 
tions from grey to yellow or reddish. The hind wings are black 
margined with yellow. It is sometimes injurious to corn, wheat, alfalfa 
and soy beans. 

Natural Enemies of Locusts. — Robber-flies, bee-flies, flesh-fly and 
blow-fly larvae, digger wasps and bUster-beetle larvae; birds and domes- 
tic fowls; toads, snakes, moles, mice, ground squirrels, skunks and hogs; 
mites, spiders, "hair-snakes," etc. 

Control of Locusts. — {a) Application of poisoned baits (see Part IV, 
p. 398). {h) Use of hopperdozers. {c) Destruction of eggs by fall 
cultivation, {d) Co-operation of communities. 

(Consult U. S. Com. Rept. on Rocky Mt. Locust, 3 vols.. Farmers' Bulls. 691 and 747, U. S. Dept. 
Agr.; Circ. 5. Ent. Br. Dept. Agr., Can.; Cornell Bull, 378; Mich. sp. Bui. 83) 



114 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

J.ocusTiu.i; ILoNG-iioRNKD Grasshoppi'.ks ok Locusts) 
More Common Genera and Species 

A. Wingless or with rudimentary wings and wing-covers. 

B. Pronotum not extended over meso- and metanotum. — Ceuihophilus. 
BB. Pronotum extended over meso- and metanotum. — Thyreonotus. 
AA. Winged. 

B. Tegmina expanded in the middle. 

C. Tegmina much broadened in the middle, concave. — Cyrtophyllus. 
CC. Tegmina somewhat broadened in the middle, not concave. 
D. Ovipositor very small. — Microcentrum. 
DD. Ovipositor of medium size. — AmUycorypha. 
BB. Tegmina not expanded in the middle. 

C. Vertex of the head with a conical projection forward. — 
Conocephalus. 
CC. Vertex of the head without a conical projection. 

D. Ovipositor straight or very nearly so; insect small. — 
Xlphidium. 
DD. Ovipositor curved; insect large. 

E. Ovipositor curved sharply upward. — Scudderia. 
EE. Ovipositor sword-shaped. — Orchelimum. 
Species of CcutJiophilus: 

A. Fore femora about as long as pronotum. — C. maculatus. 
AA. Fore femora longer than pronotum. — C. brevipes. 
Species of Thyreonotus: 

A. Pronotum well rounded behind. — T. dorsalis. 
AA. Pronotum nearly square. — T. pachymerus. 

The members of this family are seldom of sufficient importance 
economically to require special treatment. The katydids, shield- 
backed grasshoppers, cricket-like grasshoppers, and meadow grass- 
hoppers belong here and are interesting objects of study. Recently 
it was found that two species of katydids {Sciidderia fiircata B runner 
and Microcentrum rlwmhifolium Sauss.) are injurious to oranges in 
California, often causing serious loss. (Bull. 256, Bur. Ent. U. S. 
Dept. Agr., 1915.) 

GRYLLiDiE (Crickets) 
Genera and Species 

A. Fore tibiae broad, fitted for digging (Fossorial Crickets). 

B. Insect small; antennre ten- to twelve-jointed. — Tridactylus. 
BB. Insect large; antenna? many-jointed. — GryUolalpa. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS II 5 

A A. Fore tibiae slender. 

IJ. Hind femora stout (True Crickets). 

C. Last segment of the maxillary palpi of the same length as the 
next to the last. — Gryllus. 
CC. Last segment of the maxillary palpi double the length of the next 
to the last. — Nemobius. 
BB. Hind femora slender (Tree Crickets). — (Ecanlhus. 
Species of Gryllus: 

A. Black field crickets. 

B. Ovipositor 13-14 mm. long; male more slender. — G. pennsylvanicus. 
BB. Ovipositor 18 mm. long; male stout. — G. abhrevialus. 
AA. Straw colored house crickets. — G. domeslicus. 
Species of Nemobius: 

A. Ovipositor longer than hind femora and straight; color blackish, arranged 
in longitudinal bars. — N. fasciatus. 
AA. Ovipositor shorter than hind femora and arcuate. — N. exiguus. 




ex- 





•b "^^-^ /"^d. 




Fig. 70. — Markings on basal segments of antenna) of CEcanihus: a, Qic. niveus 
b, CEc. anguslipennis; c, Qic. nigricornis; d, do. 



Species of QLcanlhus (Fig. 70); 

A. Antennae with one black mark on each basal joint. 

B. Black marks like small rounded dots. — QL. niveus. 
BB. Mark on first joint long and hooked, that on second oblong. — (E. 
anguslipennis. 
AA. Antennae with two black marks on the first basal joints. 

B. Antennae wholly black, also head, thorax and legs. Marks on first 
joint of antennx' generally connected at apex. — (E. nigricornis. 
BB. Pale greenish white; marks on antennae elongate, parallel, distinct. — 
QL. 4-punclalus. 
AAA. Antenna? without marks on first joints, wing-covers broad; head and first 
joints of antennae pink. — (E. latipennis. 

The Pennsylvania Field Cricket {Gryllus pennsylvanicus Burm.). — 
The field cricket is omnivorous and seldom does enough damage to 
merit special attention. It is fond of grain, however, and often enters 
barns destroying a considerable amount of grain. 

Adult. — A large black cricket existing in two forms — the commoner 
short-winged form in which the wings are rudimentary and the long- 



ii6 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



winged form in which they project beyond the tip of the tegmina. The 
tegmina are deep black to grayish brown, in the male reaching the tip 
of the abdomen, in the short-winged female not quite so long and in 
the long-winged form slightly surpassing the tip of the abdomen. The 
ovipositor never exceeds the body in length. Length of insect 16-20 
mm. (Fig. 71). 

Eggs. — Yellow, cylindrical, laid in the soil in late summer and 
autumn in Quebec, in June and July farther south. 

Nymphs. — In the north the nymphs hatch 
in early summer from hibernated eggs; in the 
neighborhood of Indiana they hatch in July 
and August and hibernate. 

Snowy Tree Cricket {(Ecanthus niveus 
DeG.). — Sometimes injures apple and plum 
trees by egg-punctures, and occasionally eats 
holes in the ripe fruit (Fig. 74). 

Adult. — Ivory-white tinged with green, 3^^ 
inch long; wing-covers nearly twice as long as 
abdomen; those of male flattened, crossed by 
oblique veins, semi-transparent and broader 
than body, those of female wrapped close 
about the body; ovipositor short, straight and 
tipped with black; maxillary palpi relatively 
long. July-October. 

Eggs. — Elongate, cylindrical, yellow, J-^ 

variL^'fieVdTrSef '(gX^5 i^^^ l^^SJ ^^^^ singly in punctures in the bark 
pennsyivanicus) . {After of smaller branches of apple, plum and peach, 
^"^^^''•^ in the fall; hatch in May and June. 

Nymphs. — Feed on plant-lice and other insects. 

Black-horned Tree Cricket {(Ecanthus nigricornis Walker). — Con- 
sult Bull. 2,^S, N. Y. Ag. Exp. St.) Injures blackberry and raspberry 
canes by egg punctures, and carries spores of cane-hlight and other 
diseases (Figs. 72 and 73). 

Adult. — Greenish white; head and pronotum black or barred with 
black; body black beneath and yellowish-green above; antennae long, 
mostly black; wing-covers as in (E. niveus; head, thorax and legs mostly 
black. Probably feeds on flies. 

Eggs. — Similar to those of (E. niveus; laid in a row of punctures 




CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS II7 





Fig. 72. — Black-horned tree cricket {CEcanthus nigricornis). Female above, male 

below. {After Lugger.) 




A 

Fig. 73. — Egg punctures and eggs in raspberry by the black-horned cricket 

{CE. nigricornis). 



Il8 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

often 2 inches long, each row containing about 30 eggs; hatch in 
May and June. 

Nymphs. — Feed on plant-Hce and other insects; full grown late 
July and August. 

Control. — Prune out infested twigs and burn them. 

Other species of (Ecanthus deposit eggs in galls on willows, and in 
the stems of Helianthus, Solidago, etc. 




Fig. 74. — CEcanthus niveus ovipositing. (After Parrott.) 
ORDER THYSANOPTERA (THRIPS) 

(Consult Tech. Ser. No. 12, Pt. Ill, and No. 21, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dep. of Ag.) 

A. Female with a saw-like ovipositor, last segment of abdomen of female 
conical, that of male broadly rounded; wings usually present, the fore pair 
the stronger. 
B. Ovipositor curved upward; antennae 9-jointed; fore wings broad and 
rounded. MolothripidcB. — Genus Molothrips. 
BB. Ovipositor curved downward; antennae 7- to lo-jointed; wings usually 
narrow and pointed. — Thripida. Genera: Thrips, Eulhrips, Helio- 
ihrips, Anaphothrips. 
AA. Female without a modified ovipositor, last segment of abdomen tubular 

in both sexes; wings often absent, but when present similar in Btructu=re.=^t '^i'" 
Phlceothripidm. Genera: Phlosothrips, Trichothrips, Cryptothrips. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS II 9 

Thripid^ (Thrips) ♦ 

Grass Thrips (Anaphothrips striatus Osborn). — Feeds by sucking 
the juices of various grasses such as timothy, Kentucky blue, couch 
grass and oats. 

Adult. — Small, 3^f g inch long, yellowish or brownish-yellow; four 
narrow wings fringed with hairs; feet bladder-like; parthenogenetic; 
May-June. Hibernate. 

Eggs. — First brood laid in spring, hatching in 10 to 15 days; summer 
eggs hatching in 4 to 7 days. 

Nymphs. — Become full grown in spring in about 2 weeks, summer 
forms in 4 days. Life-cycle in 12 to 30 days. 

" Thrips injury on the leaves shows as minute dots or lines usually 
running parallel with the leaf veins and remaining white." 

Pear Thrips {Tceniothrips inconsequens Uzel). — (Consult Bull. 
80, Part 4. U. S. Bur. Ent., 1909; Bull. 343, N. Y. Ag. Exp. St., 191 2; Bull. 
15, Ent. Br. Dept. Ag. Can., 1918.) A pest in central California and 
British Columbia, along Hudson River and in Pennsylvania to pear, 
apple, cherry and plum. Chief injuries done by adults to the buds in 
spring (Fig. 75). 

Adult. — Minute, slender, dark brown, ^^5 inch long; wings fringe- 
like and flat along the back. Enters fruit buds in early spring. One 
brood a year. 

Eggs. — ^Laid by a sharp, curved, saw-toothed ovipositor beneath 
epidermis of fruit and leaf stems as the trees come into bloom, causing 
"bleeding," and giving the bud a shrivelled, scorched appearance when 
infestation is heavy. 

Nymphs. — Hatch out in blooming time and become full grown in 
about 2 weeks. They then drop to the ground and form a pupal cell 
some distance below, where they hibernate. The pupal stage is an 
inactive stage and lasts about 2 months before the adult appears. 

Control. — Spray early with kerosene emulsion or soap solution, or 
distillate oil emulsion, to which is added nicotine extract. 

Greenhouse Thrips {Heliothrips hcemorrhoidalis Bouche). — This in- 
sect injures the leaves of many greenhouse plants which first become 
spotted, then blotched and finally wilted. Drops of a reddish fluid, 
turning black, cover the leaves. (Consult Bull. 64, Pt. 6, Bur. Ent., 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



I20 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 




Fig. 75. — Pear thrips {Tceniothrips inconsequens) : i. Adult; 2, eggs; 3 and 4, larvte; 
5 and 6, nymphs or pupae; 7, head (side view) . All greatly enlarged. (^After Moulton, 
U. S. Bur. Enl.) 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 121 

Adult. — One-fifteenth inch long; head and thorax dark brown, 
abdomen yellowish brown; antennae with 8 segments; 3 to 4 weeks for a 
generation; fore-wings with two, hind-wings with one longitudinal vein. 

Eggs. — Hatch in 5 to 8 days; laid singly in leaf tissue; colorless and 
bean-shaped. 

Nymphs. — Mature in 20 to 25 days. 

Onion Thrips or ''White Blast'' (Thrips tabaci Lind.). — Attacks a 
large variety of garden plants. Found on bulbs of onion in loose soil 
and at axils of leaves. Punctures the tissues and sucks the sap, giving 
the field a whitish appearance. Produces also scuHions or thick 
necks. 




Fig. 76. — Wheat thrips {Euthrips Iritici). Greatly enlarged. {After Folsom.) 



Adult. — One-twenty-fifth inch long, active, slender, yellowish tinged 
with black, two pairs of bristly narrow wings which fold along the back. 
Probably winters over in the rubbish on the ground; life-cycle about 
3 weeks, hence several generations in a season. 

Eggs. — ^Laid singly in spring or early summer within the leaf tissue, 
Jf 00 i^ch long, elongate and curved; hatch in about 4 days. 

Nymphs. — Transparent at first, later greenish-yellow; mature in 
II or 12 days. 

Control. — Spray with solution of nicotine sulphate and whale oil 
soap (4 oz., 4 lb., 40 gal.) 



122 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Wheat or Strawberry Thrips {Euthrips tritici Fitch). — The most 
common thrips and found on many cultivated plants. Injurious to 
strawberry, apple, peach and wheat. Several generations in a season 
(Fig. 76). 

Adult. — Small, J^o inch long, brownish yellow. 

Eggs. — Small, whitish, curved oblong; laid singly in lower part of 
calyx and in flower stalk of strawberry; hatch in 3 days. 

Nymphs. — Three moults; mature in 9 or 10 days. 

This thrips produces ''button" strawberries. 

Cow//-^?/.— rSpray with nicotine or kerosene emulsion. 

ORDER HOMOPTERAi 
Chief Economic Families 

A. Tarsi i or 2-jointed; antennae usually prominent; beak apparently arising 
from sternum. — Group Sternorhynchi. 
B. Tarsi i -jointed; adult male with beak and 2-winged; female wingless 
with body scale-like, or gall-like, or grub-like, and covered with waxy 
secretion. — Coccidce (Scale Insects), p. 123. 
BB. Tarsi 2-jointed; wings usually 4. 

C. Wings white, opaque. — Aleyrodida (White-flies), p. 151. 
CC. Wings transparent. 

D. Legs long and slender; antennae 3-7-jointed. — Aphidida 
(Plant-lice), p. 136. 
DD. Hind legs fitted for leaping; antennae 9 or lo-jointed. — 
Psyllidce (Jumping Plant-lice), p. 152. 
A A. Tarsi 3- jointed, antennae minute; beak evidently arising from mentum. — 
Group Auchenorhynchi. 

B. Ocelli 3; males with musical organs. — CicadldcB (Cicadas), p. 156. 
BB. Ocelli 2 or wanting; males without musical organs. 

C. Antennae inserted on side of cheek beneath the eyes. — FulgoridcE. 
CC. Antennae inserted in front of and between the eyes. 

D. Prothorax prolonged into a horn above the abdomen. — 
MembracidcB (Tree Hoppers), p. 157. 
DD. Prothorax not prolonged above the abdomen. 

E. Hind tibiae armed with two stout teeth and tip crowned 
with short stout spines. — Cercopidce (Spittle Insects), 

p. 153. 
EE. Hind tibiae with a double row of spines below. — 
CicadellidcB or the Jassoidea {Lea,i Hoppers), p. 154. 

' The old order Hemiptera is here broken up into three orders viz.: Homoptera, 
Hemiptera and Siphunculata (see p. 94). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 23 

I. CoccidjE (Scale Insects) 

Chief Sub-families and Genera 

Chief S lib -families: 

A. Abdominal spiracles present on each segment; males with compound eyes; 
adult females with white waxy lamellae. — OrthezincB. 
AA. Abdominal spiracles absent; males with simple eyes. 

B. Concealed beneath a "scale," formed partly of larval exuviae, partly 
of secretion; abdomen ending in a "pygidium. " — Diaspina (P'ig. 79). 
BB. Naked or covered with a waxy secretion, but not beneath a "scale;" 
abdominal pygidium absent. 

^ C. Extremity of abdomen cleft; anal orifice closed above by a 
pair of triangular plates, anal ring fringed with setae; waxy 
scale not separable from the insect. — CoccincE. 
CC. Extremity of abdomen not cleft; no anal triangular plates, anal 
ring without setae. — Dactylopince (Fig. 81). 
Chief Genera of the Diaspince: 

A. Scale of female circular to oval with central, sub-central, or sub-marginal 
exuvia. 
B. Scale of male resembling scale of female in color and texture; only 
slightly elongated. 
C. Pygidium with 6 groups of circumgenital gland-orifices. — Com- 
stockiella. 
CC. Pygidium with less than 6 groups of gland-orifices. 

D. Chitinous processes much elongated. — Chrysomphalus. 
DD. Chitinous processes smaller and shorter or wanting. — 
Aspidiotus (Fig. 79). 
BB. Scale of male white, delicate and carinated. 

C. Dorsal spinnerets irregular; exuvia usually sub-central. — Diaspis. 
CC. Dorsal spinnerets in distinct bands; exuvia terminal in 2d 
stage female and marginal in adult. — Aulacaspis. 
AA. Scale of female elongated with exuvia at one extremity. 

B. Scale of male similar to scale of female, but smaller; five groups 
of gland-orifices. — Lepidosaphes. 
BB. Scale of both sexes white, that of male small, with parallel sides 
and carinated. — Chionaspis. 
BBB. Scale of female brown, that of male white and carinated. — Hemi- 
chionaspis. 
Chief Genera of the Coccince: 

A. Naked or covered only by a filmy secretion. 

B. Flat or slightly convex; dermis alveolate. — Coccus. 
BB. Very convex, usually hemispherical; hard when mature. 

C. Dermis with coarse polygonal pitted areas. — Saissetia. 
CC. Dermis microscopically tesselate, or appearing smooth. — ■ 
Lecanium, 



124 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

AA. With a strong cottony secretion; secreting an ovisac; body more or less 
chitinous without dorsal patches of secretion. — Pulvinaria. 
Chief Genera of the Dactylopina: 

A. Female globular or reniform, in a hard shell; larva fringed with spines. — 
Kermes. 
A A. Female not as above; anal ring with eight hairs. 

B. Adult surrounded by secretion but dorsally naked. — Gossyparia. 
BB. Adult forming a cottony sac; caudal lobe long. — Eriococcus. 
AAA. Female with soft powdery oval unarmored body; anal ring with six hairs. 

B. Antennae normally with 8 segments, sometimes 7; tarsus not toothed. — 
Pseudococcus (Fig. 81). 
BB. Antennae normally with 9 segments; tarsus toothed. — Phenacoccus. 

Scale insects are typically bark-lice, being minute sucking insects 
covered with a mealy or cottony waxy secretion. Some, like the Mealy 
Bugs, secrete a cottony material; some, like the Lecaniums, secrete 
a waxy hard continuous layer which forms a protection for the back; 
while others, like the San Jose Scale and the Oyster Shell Scale, pos- 
sess true scale-like coverings, composed partly of a waxy secretion 
and partly of moulted skins, beneath which the insect lives. 

For a short time after birth Scale insects crawl about, but soon they 
settle on the bark or leaf and begin sucking the sap. After a few 
moults the females lose their legs, eyes and feelers. The male adult 
insect is, as a rule, an active 2-winged insect with legs, eyes, feelers, 
but no mouth. In most species the females lay eggs (oviparous), 
but in a few the young scale insects are born alive (viviparous), i.e., 
the eggs hatch within the body of the mother. 

(Consult Comstock's republished papers, Bull. 372, Cornell; the "Coccidae of 
Ohio" by Sanders; "Some Scale Insects of Mississippi" by Herrick; "The 
San Jose and other Scale Insects" by Lochhead; "Coccidae of Indiana" by 
Dietz and Morrison; and Bull. 6, Tech. Series, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



Hard Scales (Diaspin^) 

Following are the most common economic orchard forms: 
Oyster Shell Scale {Lepidosaphes ulmi Linn.). — (Consult Farmers' 
Bulletin 723, U. S. Dep. Ag.) A cosmopolitan insect of European 
origin and one of the most common pests of the orchard and of shade 
trees^and shrubs. Single-brooded in the North but double-brooded in 
the Middle and Southern States (Fig. 79). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 25 

Adults. — Female scale oyster-shell shaped, narrow, /'^-Jlo inch long, 
brownish-black; male scale smaller and ovate. 

Eggs. — Yellowish-white, laid in September-October under the 
female scale (50-60). Destroyed by a mite Hemlsarcoptes malus. 

Nymphs. — The eggs hatch in late May or early June, or shortly 
after the apple blossoms fall, into active 6-legged pale yellowish larvae, 
the females moulting twice and the males once. The exuviae are 
yellowish. 

Parasites. — Parasitized by Aphelinus, Mytilaspidis, Anaphes, and 
Chiloneurus and preyed upon by lady-birds, mites and birds. 





Fig. 77. — Female San Jose scale, mature female insect removed from beneath it. 
Greatly enlarged. {After Alwood.) 

Scurfy Scale {Chionaspis furfur a Fitch). — A native insect, occur- 
ring on pear, apple, gooseberry, and black currant. 

Adult. — Scales white; female scale ovate, 2-3 mm. long, male 
scale smaller (i mm.) and 3-ridged with parallel sides (Fig. 80). 

Eggs. — Purplish-colored; laid in the early fall and found under the 
female scale in winter. 

Nymphs. — These hatch about the middle of June and the female 
larvae moult twice. The male has one moult. As in the case of the 
Oyster Shell Scale there is but one brood a season in the North and two 
in the South. 

Parasites. — Parasitized by Ablerus clisiocampce How., a chalcid 
and preyed upon by Tyroglyphus malus and Chilocorus bivulnerus. 



126 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



San Jose Scale (Aspidiolus perniciosus Comst.). — China is probably 
the home of this scale. It became established at San Jose, Cal., about 
1870, and was introduced into Eastern nurseries in the U. S. about 
1886-7, and into Ontario about 1896. Occurs on orchard trees, 
bush fruits, and many perennials and annuals. On badly infested 
branches the scale presents the appearance of dark-grey scurfy patches, 
and on fruit there is often a purplish discoloration about the scale. 

Adult. — The female scale is circular, 3^5 inch in diameter, with a 
central exuvium surrounded by a yellowish ring. The male scale is 




Fig. 78. — a, Winged San Jose scale (much enlarged) ; h, young scale insect (enlarged 

125 times). 

oval, twice as long as broad, with a long dark exuvium showing a 
nipple toward the small end of the scale. The San Jose scale winters in 
the half-grown state. Early in spring the winged males appear, and 
the females resume growth. The male moults thrice and the female 
twice. In early June the females begin to produce living young. The 
period of production lasts about six weeks during which time each 
female produces on an average 400 young. The females mature in 
35 to 40 days, and the males in about 25 days after their birth. There 
are three or four broods in northern orchards (Figs. 77 and 78). 

Nymphs. — The half -grown scale is black, and shows a central nipple 
surrounded by one or two depressed rings. 

Parasites. — The following Lady-birds feed on the San Jose Scale: 
Chilocorus bivulnerus, Pentilia misella and P. suturalis. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 27 

The chief Chalcid parasites are FrospaUella perniciosa Tower, 
Aphelinus fuscipennis How., and A. diaspidis Kow., but the percentage 
of parasitism is too low for effective control. 




Fig. 79. — Pygidia of Aspidiotus. Showing the characteristic differences in 
five common species. Greatly enlarged. D, dorsal surface; V, ventral surface. 
(After Sanders.) 

Control. — Plant fumigated nursery stock; spray with lime-sulphur 
wash (sp. gr. 1.03) before the buds burst; spray with certain miscible 
oils (see Part IV). 

The three closely related species, Putnam Scale {A. ancylus Putn.) 
wintering in nearly full-grown condition and oviparous, the eggs 



128 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



hatching in June-July, tlic Forbes Scale (.1. forbcsi John.), and the 
Curtis Scale (.1. ostrecBj'ormis Curtis) (Fig. 79), are difficult to dis- 
tinguish from the San Jose Scale, and are also found in orchards. 
A comparison of the pygidiiim, or the fused posterior abdominal seg- 
ments, under the microscope enables one to identify the adults of these 
species. On the dorsal surface of the pygidium are the anal opening 
and the glands that secrete the wax of the scale. On the ventral sur- 
face are the vaginal opening and 4 or 5 groups of spinnerets (wanting 
in the San Jose Scale). The margin of the pygidium is modified into 




.1 B c 

Fig. So. — Three common orchard scales. A, San Jose scale; B, oyster-shell scale 

C, scurfy scale. 

lobes with thickenings, dorsal and ventral spines, and plates character- 
istic of each species (Fig. yg). 

Euonymus Scale {Chionaspis cuonymi Comst.) is a common pest of 
Euonymus in the Eastern United States. Two broods a season. 
Female scale elongate-oval, brown, with yellow exuvia, convex; male 
scale white, parallel-sided, 3-ridged, with yellow exuvia, much smaller 
than female scale. 

Rose Scale {Aulacaspis roscr Bouche). — Attacks rose, raspberry, 
blackberry, etc. 

Female scale snow-white, nearly circular, thin and flat, Jf 2 i^^ch 
in diameter; with two light yellow exuviae at margin; oviparous. Male 
scale shorter, narrower, 3-ridged. Hibernates in all stages, hence 
all stages may be found on one infested plant. Two or three broods a 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 29 

year. Infested canes may become covered as if white-washed. Para- 
site: Aphelinus diaspidis How., a chalcid. 

Control. — (i) Trim out all badly infested canes before spring; (2) 
spray with whale-oil soap (i lb. to i gal. water) or lime-sulphur in 
early spring. 

Soft Scales (Cogging) 

Plum Scale, or European Fruit Lecanium (Lecanium corni Bouche). — 
This scale, also called the New York Plum Scale, is sometimes abundant 
in plum orchards. It occurs also on peach, apricot, pear, quince, 
currant, blackberry, ash, elm, etc. 

Adult. — Female scales conspicuous brown objects, *'like small 
halved peas," adhering to branches and twigs. Full grown in June. 
Male scales much smaller, flatter, more elongate, and of a whitish 
color; male insect delicate, with two whitish wings; emerges in May 
from scale. 

Eggs. — Deposited under the scale in early June; white; hatch in 
about a month. 

Nymphs. — Emerge from beneath the mother scale and crawl to 
the leaves in July; secrete much honey-dew. About the end of August 
or in September they begin to migrate from the leaves to the twigs 
and branches where they hibernate. In early spring (April) they begin 
feeding again and grow rapidly, maturing in June. 

Parasite. — Corny s fusca. 

Control. — Spray with a miscible oil (i to 15) before buds burst; 
spray about July ist with Black leaf 40 and soap. 

Terrapin Scale {Lecanium nigrofasciatum Perg.). — (Consult Bull. 
351, Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr., and Circ. 88.) Attacks shade trees, 
such as maple, basswood and birch, and orchard trees, such as apple, 
plum and peach. A native insect. 

Adult. — Female nearly hemispherical, reddish, 1-7 inches long, 
mottled with radiating streaks of black conspicuous about the margin. 
The presence of a double mid-dorsal row of 25-4olowsubconical append- 
ages appearing like pores, extending from near the anal lobes to nearly 
above the sucking mouth-parts is quite characteristic. Adult of male 
a minute, delicate 2-winged insect with rose-red body marked with 
dark and with heavy brown thoracic band, appearing early in August; 



130 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

male scale smaller than female, elongate, slightly convex, and greenish 
white. Viviparous, young born June-July. One brood a year. 

Nymphs. — Female scales nearly full grown by autumn, and winter 
as such. Mature early in spring. 

Control. — A 20-25 per cent, kerosene emulsion or miscible oil ap- 
plied in dormant seasons destroys the hibernating females, or flour- 
lime sulphur just before the young migrate to the leaves. Coccophagus 
sp., a chalcid, is an important parasite. 

Cottony Maple Scale {Pulvinaria vitis L.). — Occasionally becomes a 
serious pest of shade trees, such as the soft maple, box-elder, bass- 
wood, etc. 

^fi?w//.— Conspicuous on account of the cotton-like waxy masses 
projecting from beneath the brown scale of the female. Female scale 
"elliptical, convex on the back with a low rounded median ridge; pale 
green or whitish yellow, marked with black or brown." Male insect 
winged, with two long caudal filaments, and long antennae. 

Eggs.—MmMit, oval, pale yellowish; enclosed in the secretion of 
waxy threads; about 3000 eggs laid by each female, in June and July. 

Nymphs. — At first active and crawling, with six legs; later they 
settle and secrete a thin waxy covering on their backs. Females 
fertilized by the males in late summer. In autumn they migrate from 
leaves to twigs where they remain all winter. 

Parasites. — Coccophagus lecanii Sm., C. flavoscutellum Ashm. — 
chalcids. 

Control. — Spray in early spring with Black Leaf 40 and whale-oil 
soap. 

Golden Oak Scale (Asterolecanium variolosum Ratz). — A small, 
yellow, round, convex scale often coating twigs of oak. The nymphs 
appear in May- June. 

Cottony Grass Scale {Eriopeltis festucce Fonsc). — Often abundant 
on stems of grasses in the maritime provinces; forming conspicuous 
compact oval tufts of cotton wool, the egg-sacs. The eggs hatch in 
spring and the scales become full grown in July. Toward the end of 
July the eggs are laid in the cottony sacs. 

Elm Bark -louse {Gossyparia spuria Modeer). — The females are dark 
red, bordered with white wax; j^^o ir^ch long; arranged irregularly along 
cracks or fissures in the bark of trunks or limbs. The young appear 
in late June or early July and settle along the mid-veins of the leaves 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 131 

and on the green tips of twigs. In Sept.-Oct. they migrate back to 
the twigs. Winter is passed as partly grown insects. 



Mealy Bugs (Dactylopin^) 

Greenhouse plants are often injured by Mealy Bugs, which are 
mealy in appearance and are able to move about freely. The scale is 



Orthe^ia 
msignis 




Ps.longisplnu5 "^ Kermes pubescens 



Fig. 81. — A, Pseudoccus cilri showing adult female, anal ring and penultimate 
segment (i), antenna of adult female (2). B, Pseudococcus longispinus, showing 
adtilt female, antenna (i), anal ring and penultimate segment (2). C, Kermes 
pubescens. D, Orthezia insignis. E, Pseudococcus trifolii, showing anal ring and 
penultimate segment (3), anterior leg of adult female (4), and antenna of adult 
female (5). {After Sanders.) 



absent and at maturity they secrete a cottony sack within which are 
deposited the cream-colored eggs. The following species are common: 



132 



KCONOMU' KN ri)M()l.(>('.Y 




I'^u;. S_'. lltniisflici iinl sutlr i,SiUsstMia lu'niisphaMicji) (Mi I\mh. Nadir. il si/.c* 

(.■l//(T l-'othfs.) 




Vic. S^. lliMuisphorioal sc.ilo. cnl.\r>;cil. {Alt<r l-'orlus.) 



CI-ASSIKICAI'ION AND I )l';S('im''n< )N oi' roMMoN INSi;('IS 133 

Long-tailed Mealy Bug irsnuloi ()<< u.s fon^ispinus Targ.). A sihmII 
mealy (o.'i led iiisccl, vivi|);ii<)iis, (x ( tiniiiji; 011 ('olcuis, ferns, (ToIod, 
l*()ii)S('(lia and citrous |)lanls (l''ig. Hi). 

Citrus or Greenhouse Mealy Bug {/'snuhxorrus < ilri kisso). Ovi- 
j);ir()iis; occurs on CoU^us, Icriis ;ind (ilrous plnnls. ('onimou (i'ig. 
Ki). 

Clover Root Mealy Bug ( T send ()((>(( us trijolii l-'orlxs). ()(< urs near 
(lie crown of second \v\\y icd ;ind while ( lovers in ( Inslers, ollen ;i,( ( oni- 
pauicd by anls. Two forms cxisl winlcr Jamilrs, li.ih lied from e^gs 
in llie fall, prodiu inj.-; larva' in 1 lie spring-;, some feed in j/; on I lie roots a, nd 





l''l( .. V> /\ . A s l> i (I i s I r II S( iilc. 
( I I(niii( lii()ii;is])is uKi)i(!ii;lra!). Vv- 
inalc. scale, cnliirK^Jtl- {AJlcr 
I'Orlx-s.) 



Vu:. V>$. - Mah-r.calc lA \\n: 
A:;i)i(lisl,ra scale, cnl.-ii r.cd. 
{Aflc.r Forbes.) 



others on I lie leaves; and summer fcmdlcs, |)rodu( in^^ severaJ gen(;rat ions. 
Oviparous females lay eggs in the fall after mating with males (iMg. Si). 
Woolly Maple Leaf Scale {Phcnacoccus mcrirold Walsh and kiley). 
— A pest of maple trees, often confused with the Collony Maple Scale. 
Ovij)a,rous, ' f- to } f^ iiu h long, yellow, rounded oval. 

Other Greenhouse Scales 

Lemons, ( rotons, oleanders, ivies, etc. in greenhouses arc; frequently 
atta<k<'d hy sj)e(ies of ('o((n.s, Sdissetiil, Aspidlolus," ChrysomphaluSf 



134 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Orthczia and Hemichionaspis in addition to the Mealy Bugs already 
described. 

Soft Brown Scale {Coccus hespcridum Linn.). — An oval, flat scale, 
straw colored to dark brown; viviparous. Occurs on oleander, Cycas, 
ivy, rubber plant, box elder. 

Hemispherical Scale (Saissetia hemisphcBrica Targ.). — An oval, 
polished, rich brown scale; oviparous. Occurs on palms, orchids, ferns, 
asparagus, oleanders (Figs. ^2 and ^7>). 




i3P^<h>' 



i^k^rl 



iii'/r'^^ 





Fig. 86. — Types of antenna^ of aphids: a, Chaitophorus: b, Aphis; c, Schizoneura; 
d, Pemphigus (apterous); e, Chermcs; f, g, scnsoria. 



Oleander or Ivy Scale {Aspuiiotus hcdcrce Vail.). — A circular, flat, 
grey or white scale, with a pale orange-colored centre. Occurs on 
oleander, ivy, box wood, orange, palm, cycad. 

Circular Scale (Chrysomp/ialus aoiiidum Linn.). — A circular dark 
brown scale with a grey nipple in a reddish brown ring. Occurs on 
Araucaria, citrus, oleander, l)egonia, and rubber plant. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 135 

Greenhouse Orthezia {Orthezia insignis Dougl.). — An ochreous to 
green insect, covered with plates of waxy secretion. Occurs on many 
j)lants (Fig. 81). 

Aspidistra Scale {Hemichionaspis aspidistrce Signoret). — Female 
scale l{o inch long; oviparous; light or dark brown with exuviae 
brighter; thin and delicate; somewhat oyster-shell shaped. Male 



\ y 






Fig. 87. — Front of head and cauda of aphids: a, Micros iphum cralcegi; h, Myzus 
(apterous); c, Myzus -{aXsite); d, Phorodon. 



scale white, 3-ridged, slender, edges parallel. Occurs on Boston fern, 
aspidistra, orange, orchids, Davallia (Figs. 85 and 86). 

Control. — On indoor plants for Mealy Bugs use Black Leaf 40 
(i to 400) and soap (4 lb. to 50 gal); for Hard and Soft Scales use 
whale-oil soap (i lb. to 2 gal.) or a dilution of some good miscible oil to 
which Black Leaf 40 has been added. 



136- ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Spray with lime-sulphur, whale-oil soap, kerosene emulsions, 
miscible oils or whitewash when outdoor plants are infested. 

APHIDIDyE (APHIDS OR PLANT-LICE) 

Chief EcoNOsiiic Gener\ (Figs. 86-94) 

A. Front wings with four oblique veins; antennae generally 6-segmented. 
B. Media of fore wings twice forked (except Lachnus in part). 
C. Antennae of winged female 5-segmented. — Si pita. 
CC. Antennae of winged female 6-segmented. 

D. Cornicles mammiform; filament of sixth segment of 
antennae not developed. 

E. Fore wing with stigmal shading appearing as the 
stigma, extending to tip of wing. Large aphids 
occurring commonly on Quercus, Tilia^ and Platanus. 
— Longistigma. 
EE. Venation normal, except in Lachnus where media is 
sometimes unbranched or only once forked. Occur- 
ring usually on conifers, never on Tilia or Platanus. 
F. Flocculent species. Never on conifers. — Phyl- 

lapliis. 
FF. Not conspicuously flocculent as in F. Occur- 
ring on conifers. — Lachnus. 
DD. Cornicles variously shaped, seldom mammiform but if so 
the filament of sixth antennal segment developed. 

E. Large aphids \vith cornicles usually vasiform, body 
and appendages hirsute. Occurring on Populus and 
Salix. — Pteroco m ma . 
EE. Not as above. 

F. Cornicles short or wanting, usually tuberculate; 
Cauda bluntly rounded or knobbed. 
G. Cornicles appear as mere rings; wings held 
horizontal when at rest. — Moncllia. 
GG. Cornicles usually distinct; wings held 
slanting or roof-shaped over back when at 
rest. 
H. Body and appendages hirsute in 
which respect it approaches Ptero- 
comma but smaller and mostly leaf- 
feeders; hairs not knobbed; antennae 
noticeably shorter than body; gre- 
garious on host. — Chaitophorus. 
HH. Body not conspicuously hirsute; 
antennae varying in length often 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 137 



noticeably longer than body; hairs on 
antenna) and body usually knobbed; 
most species living solitary or scat- 
tered on host. — Calliplerini (includes 
Myzocallis, Calliplerus, Euceraphis 
et al.).^ 







Fig. 88. — Types of cornicles among the aphids. Beginning from left, 
Aphis avence, A. brassicce, A. gossypii, Chaitophorus negundinis, Hyadaphis sp., 
Liosomaphis sp. 

FF. Cornicles short to very long but not tuberculate; 
Cauda not globular or knobbed. 
G. First antennal segment gibbous on inner 
side. 







Fig. 89. — Front of head and cauda of two aphids: a, Rhopalosiphum; b, Aphis. 

H, Frontal or antennal tubercles with 
a prominent tooth-like projection 
on inner side; cauda tapering. — 
Phorodon. 
* See Can. Ent., Vol. 42, No. 8. 



i.^S 



ECONOMIC ION lOMOl.OGY 



nil, I'lonlal liihi'icli's willioul t lu' pronii- 

iuii( toot I) like project ion; cau<l;i 

more or li'ss sickle shaped. — Myziis. 

(i(i. I'irsl atitt'MiKil scjj;nuMit not conspicuously 

};iI)l)ous on inner side. 

II. Head with distinct and more or less 
prominent frontal tubercles. 
1. C(M-nicles cla\att>; antenna* sel- 
dom lonj^er than body; cauda 
tapering and knobbed. — R/tofxilo- 
si/) hum. 
II. Cornicles c>lin(hii a! or incon- 
spicut)usly swollen; antennir usu- 
ally lonj^cr than body; cauda 
ensiforni.- -M acrosi pituni. 
Mil. Mead with I'ronlal t ubcrcK's absent or 
slight. 
1. C'ornicles distinctly cla\ate. — 

Siphocorync (llyadapliis). 
II Cornicles usually cylindrical and 
of moderate length; if clavate 
lhe>' are only slight 1\' swollen 
and (|uite small. 
j. Cornicles \ery short, nuu h 
shorter than cauda, slightly 
swollen; beak short ; antenna- 
shorter than hody.— IIyalop- 
Icms. 
}}. No{ as above, i.e., cornicles 
moderatel\- long, usually 
longer than cauda, cylindri- 
cal; antiMina- usuall\' as long 
as or only slightly shorter 
than iMxly. A phis. 
Ul{. Media of foic' wings oiuc forked or simjile. 
C. Media simple. 

I). Hind wings with two obliiiue \eins. Poiiphii^ns. 
ni>. Hind wings with but om- oblicjue \i'in. 

{']. Antenna" ()-segmenteil. — Tctromiini. 
\\\\. .\nteniKe 5 segmented. — llamaniclislcs. 
VA']K. AntiMUKc ,.; segmented. Ilorniophis. 
CC Media once forked. 

|). Cornicles present, an .\phis-like species. - Toxoph'ra. 
|)|). Cornicles \estigial or wanting. 

I''. Hind wings witli two obliciue veins. 'I'.riosotun. 
V.V.. Hind wings witli owe obli(|ue \-ein. Colopha. 




1'^n;. (^o. I'^"onl of head o 
apliids: a. (Imilophorns; />, 11 yn 
dn phis. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 39 



AA. Front wings with three ()l)li(|uc veins, the media sim[)Ic (unbranched), 
radial sector merged with margin of stigma; antenna^ never more than 5- 
segmented. 
B. Antennae 5-segmented; wings at rest folded upright; galls on conifers. 
— Chcrmes. 
BH. Antenna; 3- or 4-segmented; wings at rest Hat on hack; galls on grape, 
hickory, etc., never on conifers. — Phylloxera. 



Sc*R+M*Cu* 1st A .5c 




Sc*R*MtCu*/stA 5c 




Fic;. 91. — Venation of Mucro- 
siphum. {After Patch.) 



Fig. 92. — Venation of Tuxoplera. 
(After Patch.) 



l^lanl-lice or Aphids are gregarious sucking insects, often abundant 
on many varieties of plants, and doing much injury. Three forms 
occur: i. sedentary wingless viviparous agamic females, 2. migra- 
tory winged vivi})arous agamic females, 3. sexual males and females 
— the females ()vi])arous and wingless and the males winged or wingless. 

5c*R-^M^CutlstA sc 



Rs 



Sc*R*M*Ca*lstA 





Fig. 93. — Venation of Tclra- 
neura. {After Patch.) 



Fk;. 94.— Venation of Chcrmes. 
{After Patch.) 



Reproduction among the aphids may be represented diagrammatic- 
ally as follows: 

O— P~P— P—P— P— P— P— P( )0 

■ i ^ 

= P = P_P— p_P_p/ yo 

9 

where O represents the overwintering egg, P the vivij)ar()us agamic 



140 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



wingless form, and =P= the viviparous agamic winged form, and 
cf and 9 the sexual forms (Fig. 95). 

In general, plant-lice are soft-bodied and green, sometimes brown 
or black. The winged forms have four delicate wings with a few simple 
veins — the front pair much larger than the hind pair. The sucking 
beak is 3- jointed; the legs and antennae are long and the eyes promi- 
nent. In autumn the sexual females deposit eggs that hatch in the 
spring into females which are often termed "stem-mothers." These 
produce living females which in turn produce living females, and so on 
for several generations. As each female produces several young, and 

these mature in a short time, reproduction is 
very rapid. When autumn approaches and 
food supply becomes scarce a brood of winged 
males and wingless females is produced. 
The females produce the winter eggs. Some- 
times agamic females hibernate. 

There are many species of plant-Hce, 
some feeding on one variety of plant, but 
many are capable of feeding on two or more 
varieties. Some feed for a time on one host 
plant, then migrate to another for the sum- 
mer, finally returning to the first one in 
autumn. Some produce abnormal growths 
^'"'paro^t^l'aphidT''^'" ^^lled galls, such as' the grape phylloxera 

gall, the cockscomb gall on the elm, the 
Cottonwood gall, the poplar gall, etc. 

Most plant-Kce excrete a sweet hquid called "honey-dew," which 
is attractive to ants, bees, wasps and other insects. On account of 
this honey-dew aphids are often attended by ants who guard them. 
Forbes has shown that the Httle brown ant {Lasius niger) has domesti- 
cated the Corn Root Aphis, which is cared for and controlled in all 
stages of its development. (Consult Bull, no, 112, 276 and Farmers' 
Bull. 804, U. S. Dept. Agr., and Bulletins by Parrott, Patch, Forbes, 
Herrick and Matheson.) 

Fecundity. — Regarding the powers of reproduction of aphids Web- 
ster and Phillips (Bull, no, U. S. Bur. of Entom.) cite the estimates of 
Huxley and Buckton. The former estimated that the tenth genera- 
tion alone of a single Rose Aphis, were there no deaths, would contain 




CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 141 

more substance than 500 million stout men; the latter computed that 
in 300 days, or 15 generations of 20 each, there would be 20^^ indi- 
viduals, equal in weight to 1,638,400,000 men, supposing that 1000 
aphids weigh i grain and i man weighs 2,000,000 grains. Another 
computer makes the possible number of individuals very much higher, 
viz., 210^^. It is believed that in the case of the Spring Grain Aphis 
or "Green Bug" {Toxoptera graminum) reproduction would not fall 
short of the figures given above as the average number of young pro- 
duced in Indiana by each viviparous female for 1907-8-9 was 28.2. 
It is conceivable, therefore, how this pest is able to devastate vast 
areas of grain fields within a few weeks. 

Professor Forbes of lUinois (Bulletin 130) also computes the 
fecundity of the Corn Root Aphis on the basis of a generation of 12 
to 15 young in 2 weeks. If all the progeny lived and multipHed at 
this rate for a season they would reach 9,500,000,000. 

In the case of the Green Apple Aphis {Aphis pomi) A. C. Baker 
reports the average reproduction per insect for the entire season as 
about 40. As the stem-mother becomes mature about May ist in Vir- 
ginia, and there are from 9 to 17 generations, or an average of 13, re- 
production is very rapid. The potential number of green apple aphids 
in September from a single stem-mother would be 40^'^ = 670,088,- 
640,000,000,000,000. 

J. J. Davis reports for the Oat Aphis {Aphis avence) 15 generations 
for Indiana with an average of 30 young for each female. The progeny 
of one stem-mother at the end of the season would be 30^^. 

The same writer gives for the Pea Aphis {Macrosiphum pisi) the 
average number of young borne by female of 16 consecutive genera- 
tions as 65. The progeny of a stem-mother at the end of the season 
would in this case be 65^^. 

Natural Enemies. — ^Lady-bird beetles, syrphid maggots, lace-wing 
larvae, many parasitic hymenoptera, nymphs of tree-crickets, harvest- 
spiders, birds. 

Control. — Spray with kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, tobacco 
extract, etc. 

Chief Economic Species 
COMMON CEREAL AND FARM CROP APHIDS 
Apple Bud or Oat Aphis {Aphis avence Fab.). — Sometimes called 
the European Grain Aphis; is often injurious to apple buds and appears 



142 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

before the other apple aphids. Stem-mothers appear early in May and 
are yellowish-green with three dark lines on back; progeny winged and 
blackish; migrate to grains and grasses in the second and third genera- 
tions, winged and wingless generations. Migrate back to apple in 
September where mating occurs. Males produced on the secondary 
host and females on the primary host. Beak short and stout; thoracic 
shield dark; cornicles short and flanged; cornicles, antennae and feet 
black. 

Clover Aphis {Aphis bakeri Cowan). — Sometimes attacks the apple 
in the middle West. Eggs are laid on the apple, the pink stem-mothers 
appear early and give rise to green winged and wingless forms. The 
former migrate to clovers and give rise to sevei*al wingless generations. 
In late autumn the winged forms fly back to the apple and hawthorn 
where the eggs are laid. Cornicles are short. 

Corn Leaf Aphis (Aphis maidis Fitch). — Bluish-green, with black 
legs, antennae and cornicles; a row of black dots on each side of 
back. 

Com Root Aphis {Aphis maidi-radicis Forb.). — Bluish-green lice on 
corn roots; attended by brown ant {Lasiiis niger). 

Spring Grain Aphis or Green Bug (Toxoptera graminum Rond.). — 
Infests cereals in spring; wingless form yellowush-green, with faint dark 
line along back; eyes black. Winged form larger, with darker thorax. 
Migrates to other regions and to grasses. Parasitized by Lysiphlebus 
tritici. 

Western Grain Aphis (Brachycolus tritici Gillette). — Is injurious 
to winter wheat in Montana. 

English Grain Aphis {Macrosiphum granarium Kirby). — Occurs on 
wheat, barley and the grasses, Agrostis, Bromus, Dactylis, Poa and 
Phletim and Cat-tail, widely distributed in the U. S. 

COMMON FRXHT APHIDS 

Apple Bud or Oat Aphis (Aphis avence Fab.). — See above. 

Green Apple Aphis (Aphis mali Fab. = A. pomi DeG.). — This 
aphis collects usually on the tips of tender shoots, on the under surface 
of the leaves, and when abundant attacks the developing fruit. 
Winters on tw^igs as black shining eggs which hatch just before leaf 
buds open; 3 12 i^^h long, pear-shaped; bright green; black, slender 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 43 

cornicles; inhabits the apple throughout the season; winged females 
occur during summer. Causes curhng of the leaves to some extent, 
those of young trees suffering most. Several (10-15) generations 




Fig. 96. — Green apple aphis {Aphis pomi): a, alate or winged form; b, apterous 
or wingless form; c, oviparous female; d, male; e, antenna of winged form. 

in a season, and each generation shorter than 3 weeks; each mother 
produces about 70 young (Fig. 96). 

Rosy Apple Aphis {Aphis sorhi Kalt. = A. malifolice Fitch = A. 
pyri Boyer). — This shade-loving aphis collects around the flower buds, 
the developing fruits and on the under side of the leaves. It causes 
nearly all the curling of the leaves and the "cluster-apples." Larger 
than preceding; }y^ inch long. Wingless females blue; honey-tubes 



144 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

yellow tipped with black, long and tapering; body covered with a 
powdery substance. Winged females with black thorax and red ab- 
domen, honey-tubes long and black. Two small tubercles at end of 
abdomen; the late winged forms are migrants and have a black patch 
on abdomen, black bands across last segments of abdomen, and black 
spots on sides. Egg-laying females lemon-yellow, mate with migrant 
winged males. In this species also the males are produced on the 
secondary and the females on the primary host. After the third 
summer agamic generation this species deserts the apple for the 
plantain, but returns in autumn. (Consult ''Apple Tree Insects of 
Maine," Circ. 31, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

Sweet Cherry Aphis {Myzus cerasi Fab.). — Eggs oval and black, 
laid around the buds and on bark of twigs and branches, hatching in 
late April. Stem mother globose and glossy black. First brood 
wingless viviparous, later broods winged and wingless viviparous; the 
winged form with head, thorax, cornicles and cauda black, and abdomen 
dark green to dark brown migrate to Lepidium where several broods of 
dark brown, wingless viviparous forms and darker winged forms are 
produced. The latter return to cherry when they and other resident 
winged forms produce viviparous females which are fertilized by 
migrant winged males from Lepidium. No males are produced on 
the cherry. Six to 14 generation are produced during the season in 
the Niagara district. Controlled most successfully in early spring, 
just before the buds burst, by spraying with lime sulphur and Black 
Leaf 40 (Ross, 48//? Rep. Out. Ent. Soc, 191 7). 

Clover Aphis (Aphis bakeri Cowan). — See above. 

Green Peach Aphis (Myzus persicce Sulz). — This general feeder is our 
most common greenhouse species. Under glass it reproduces vivi- 
parously from year to year. At first the young lice are pink, but next 
generation is bright green. Migration in third generation to garden 
crops (where it has been known as Rhopalosiphum dianthi Schr.) 
returning in autumn to peach. 

Currant Plant-louse (Myzus ribis L.). — A small yellowish plant- 
louse causing a curling and blistering of the leaves of currants with 
red discoloration of the upper surface. Wingless female light green 
and mottled; body covered with capitate hairs, and with two rows 
of spots on mid-dorsal surface. Winged forms darker and abdomen 
crossed by several bands. Migrates to Stachys and Galeopsis (Gillette). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 145 

Hop Plant-louse {Fhorodon humuli Schrank). — Migrates from plums 
to hop in the third generation; yellowish-green, with a prominent 
tubercle on head at base of each antenna, and another smaller tubercle 
on the base of each antenna. 

Apple Woolly Aphis {Schizoneura (= Eriosoma), lanigera Haus, 
americana Riley in part). — (Consult Bull. 256, Maine Agr. Expt. Stn., 




Fig. 97. — Forms of the woolly apple aphis: A, winged viviparous female; 
B, stem-mother; D, wingless viviparous female, summer form; E, male; F, pupa 
of fall migrant; G, oviparous female. All much enlarged. {After Baker, U. S. Bur. 
Ent.) 



1916.) This native woolly aphis is frequently injurious to many vari- 
eties of apple trees, causing deformations both on the stems and leaves 
and on the roots. It occurs also on pear, hawthorn and mountain 
ash, and passes part of its life on the elm. The injury to the roots 
consists in the formation of hard fibrous enlargements resembhng 
knots or clubs, often causing the death of the affected part. Nursery 



10 



146 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

stock is liable to infestation and severe injury. The injury to the 
branches is not so serious, but in cases of severe infestation it causes 
stunted growth and yellowing of the leaves. Colonies often collect 
at tlie axils of leaves, on water-sprouts, and at abrasions and wounds. 

The common form seen on roots and limbs is wingless, Jf ir^ch long, 
redcHsh-brown, and covered with a woolly waxy excretion (Fig. 97). 

The life-history of the trunk forms is as follows: 

Some winter near the base of the apple tree as immature nymphs; 
but those in the elm as eggs in crevices of the bark. The hibernating 
nymphs on the apple migrate to the branches in early spring, and a 
succession of parthenogenetic generations of apterous viviparous 
females appears throughout the season. From the eggs on the elm 
hatch out apterous viviparous stem-mothers in early spring about May 
15th, the second generation is also apterous viviparous, but the third is 
winged and migrates to the apple, hawthorn and mountain ash where 
three generations are developed, two being apterous, and the third 
l)art apterous and part winged. 'i1ie winged form migrates back 
to the elm, and produces the wingless sexual forms. Each female 
lays one large yellow egg which winters on the tree. The wingless 
forms remaining on the apple give rise to another generation which 
winters over as immature nymphs. 

The injury to the elm leaves is characteristic — the formation of 
terminal leaf clusters or rosettes. S. americana produces leaf-curl. 

The winged forms are nearly black, the abdomen being rusty brown, 
the wings are clear and the antennae have annulations and are 6-jointed. 
The sexual forms are wingless, beakless, smaller than the agamic 
forms; the female J'20 i^^^h long, reddish-yellow, is larger than the 
olive-yellow male; the antennae are 5-jointed, and without annulations 
as in other apterous forms. The root colonies ordinarily remain 
underground throughout the year, and do less injury northward. 

Parasites. — Aphdinus niali, a chalcid; Fipiza radicum, a syrphid; 
lady-bird beetles. 

Control. — Spray thoroughly the aerial forms with kerosene emulsion, 
soap solution or tobacco decoction; dip roots of suspected nursery 
stock in same solution or fumigate with HCN; add tobacco dust 
to the soil. 

Black Peach Aphis [Aphis pcrsiccc-iiigcr Er. Sm.). — Black; lives 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 47 



Oil roots, twigs and leaves. No migration. Of no economic importance 
in Ontario (Fig. 98). 

Mealy Plum Louse {Ilyaloplerus arundinis Fab.). — Has long narrow 
light green body with three longitudinal stripes; covered with a mealy 
powder; honey-tubes short and thick; winged females migrate in June 
to grasses and cat-tail and return in autumn. 

Variable Currant Aphis {Aphis varians I'atch).— Infests currants, 
gooseberries and llowering currants, causing curling of the leaves. 
The winged summer forms migrate to some unknown host, and return 




Ml 



Fk;. 98. — Black peach ai)his (winded female). {After Quaintance .) 

in the fall. The eggs are deposited on the twigs. The stem-mother 
is j)urplish-green with white honey-tubes. The winged form has a 
black head and body, with a dark green abdomen marked with black, 
while the wingless form is dark green, tan or dark brown. 

Green Gooseberry Aphis {Aphis sanborni Patch). — Green; honey- 
tubes white. 

Grape Phylloxera {Phylloxera vitifolice Fitch = vastatrix Planchon). 
— Four forms are recognized: (i) wingless leaf-gall form; (2) wingless 
root form; (3) winged form; {4) sexual form. 

I. Adult leaf-gall form is a wingless female, plump, orange-yellow. 
Fills gall with many yellow eggs which hatch in 3 days into females. 
Several generations during summer. The feeding puncture stimulates 
the growth of the leaf tissue so that a hollow gall is produced, opening 
on the upper surface. 



148 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

2. Root form similar to that on leaf; often derived from leaf form; 
several generations in a season; yellowish and wingless, and forms 
nodules which break down and decay, often destroying the root. 
Yellowish oval eggs are laid on the roots. Larvae moult three times. 
Leaf-galls are most common on American grapes while root-galls are 
most common on European grapes. 

3. Some of the root forms in late summer develop elongate long- 
legged winged females that fly to neighboring vines and lay 2-4 eggs 
beneath loose bark. 

4. These eggs are of two sizes — the smaller producing males, the 
larger sexual females. These are wingless and minute. Each female 
lays one large egg from which hatch the following spring the leaf and 
root forms. Not destructive on "sandy soils. 

Control. — Spray in early spring with lime sulphur; use American 
varieties as stock. 

COMMON GARDEN APHIDS 

Cabbage or Turnip Plant-louse {Aphis brassiccEL.). — Often abun- 
dant on the under surface of leaves of cabbages and turnips, and very 
destructive in warm dry weather. A greenish, soft, pear-shaped insect 
covered with a whitish bloom. Mature forms have bkck head and 
eyes and dark cornicles; nymphs are pale green with black legs and 
antennae. Parasite, Aphidiiis rapce, a braconid. 

Aphis pseudobrassicae Davis. — Also occurs on turnip, radish, cab- 
bage, rape, mustard, etc., and is often mistaken for A. brassicce. 

Melon Plant-louse (Aphis gassy pii Glov.). — Occurs on the under 
surfaces of the leaves of melon, cucumber, squash etc., and also on other 
crops and weeds. Winter eggs have been found on purslane and straw- 
berry, A blackish-green insect. Apterous females with legs and 
antennae whitish, cornicles black and short; winged forms with a row of 
black spots on sides of abdomen, and spots on head and thorax. 

Bean Aphis (Aphis rumicis L.). — Occurs on the tips of horse and 
broad beans at time of flowering. When the lice are abundant the 
plants assume a sooty sticky appearance. Also on apple, dahlia, dock, 
shepherd's purse, pigweed, snowball and burning bush. This aphis is 
slaty blue or black, with white bands on the legs and often with waxy 
tufts. Called also the ''black fly," "collier" and "black dolphin." 

Strawberry Root Louse (Aphis forbesi Weed). — Bluish-green, on 
roots of strawberry; occurs also on leaves. Eggs laid on stems and 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 149 

leaves. Ants carry lice to roots. Of no economic importance in 
Ontario. 

Pea Plant-louse (Macrosiphum pisi Kalt.). — Green; eyes red; legs 
long; migrates in August to clover fields where eggs are laid and first 
spring generation feeds. Parasites — A phidiusfletcheri Ash., Megorismus 
fletcheri Crwd., a chalcid. 

Potato Plant-louse {Macrosiphum s olanif olii Ashmesid). — Green or 
pink; migrates to the rose, where winter is spent. Feeds on a large 
number of plants. 

Green Rose Aphis {Macrosiphum rosce Linn.). — A large pale green 
aphis with dark antennae and the cornicles long and black. Occurs on 
roses. 

Black Chrysanthemum Aphis {Macrosiphum sanborni Gill.). — 
Occurs on chrysanthemums in greenhouses. A brownish-black pyri- 
form plant-louse. 

COMMON SHADE AND FOREST TREE APHIDS 

Negundo Plant-louse {Chaitophorus negundinis Thos.). — A serious 
pest of the ash-leaved or Manitoba maple in the West. Infested trees 
soon become covered with honey-dew in which a sooty fungus develops. 

Woolly Apple Aphis {Schizoneura lanigera) . — See above. 

Poplar Leaf Gall Louse {Pemphigus populicaulis Fitch). — Pro- 
duces a deformity at the junction of petiole and blade of cottonwood 
and aspen. 

Alder Blight {Pemphigus tessellatus Fitch). — A Woolly aphid, occurs 
on branches of alder. Winged forms migrate to the maple. 

Beech Tree Blight {Pemphigus imhricator Fitch). — A similar form on 
the twigs and leaves of beech. 

Sitka Spruce Gall Aphis {Chermes cooleyi Gillette), Western Hem- 
lock Woolly Aphis {Chermes funitectis Dreyfus), Sitka Spruce Green 
Aphis {Aphis abietina Walk.). — -Are important economic forms on the 
Pacific Coast of British Columbia. 

Spruce Gall Aphis {Chermes abietis Choi.). — Abundant locally on 
White and Norway spruces, producing pine-apple-like galls at base of 
terminal shoots. Each gall, % inch long, contains about 50 cells each 
holding from 8 to 12 nymphs. The life-cycle is briefly as follows: 

"Galls open about mid- August and fully grown pupae emerge and 
moult within a few hours becoming the winged form which deposits a 



ISO 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



cluster of 40 to 50 yellow eggs on a spruce needle. The eggs are 
extruded from the abdomen but the parent Chermes remains over them 
until dislodged after her death by wind or rain. The winged form often 
oviposits near the gall from which it emerges. A different species of 
host plant is never sought by this Chermes. In about two weeks the 
young "stem-mothers" hatch from these eggs and seek a protecting 
crevice in the surface of the spruce bud where they can spend the winter. 
These wingless forms develop in the spring and become full grown about 
the last of May when they lay a cluster of 140 or more eggs. From 
these eggs hatch the young that inhabit the gall and are known as the 
"gall generation" with which we started the cycle" (Patch). 

Spruce Gall Aphis {Chermes similis Gill.). — (Consult Bull. 173, 
Maine Agr. Exp. Stn.). Abundant locally on black, red, white and 
Norway spruces, producing loose terminal galls and scraggly deformed 
twigs. The galls open about July ist and the winged fiocculent mi- 
grants oviposit on spruce. 

Control. — Spray in early spring while trees are dormant with whale- 
oil soap (i lb. to 2 gal. water). Black Leaf 40 (i to 800) added to 
soap (i lb. to 4 gal. water). 

Pine Bark Aphis {Chermes pinicorticis Fitch). — A common enemy 
of cultivated pines, appearing as fiocculent white masses upon the green 
bark of the more tender parts. 

Control. — Spray in late April or May with fish-oil soap or kerosene 
emulsion. 

DOUBLE-HOST APHIDS 

Following is a partial list of double-host Aphids: 

Chermes abieticolens on spruce 
Pemphigus tesselatus Fitch on alder 
Pemphigus balsamiferae on cottonwood 
Eriosoma pyricola on pear 
Eriosoma lanigera on apple 
Eriosoma americana on plum 
Eriosoma ulmi on English elm 
Hyalopterus arundinis on plum 
Phorodon humuli on plum 
Aphis avense on apple 
Aphis sorbi on apple 
Aphis pruni on plum 
Aphis peril on oleander 



= Chermes pinifoliae on white pine. 

= Pemphigus acerifoliae Riley on maple. 

= Pemphigus betas on beets. 

= Eriosoma pyricola on elm. 

= Eriosoma americana in part on elm. 

= Eriosoma americana on Juneberry. 

= Eriosoma fodiens on currant. 

= H. arundinis on reed grass, cat-tail. 

= P. humuli on hop. 

= A. avenae on oats, cat-tail, etc. 

= A. sorbi on plantain. 

= Aphis cardui on thistle. 

= A. lutescens on milkweed. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 151 

Aphis bakeri on apple and hawthorn = Aphis bakeri on clover. 
Aphis brevis on apple and hawthorn = Aphis brevis on clover. 
Aphis euonymi on snowball and burning = Aphis rumicis on bean and dahlia. 

bush 
Macrosiphum illinoiensis on Viburnum = M. illinoiensis on grape. 

prunifoliae 
Macrosiphum solanifolii on rose = M. solanifolii on potato. 

Macrosiphum granarium on grains, rose, = M. granarium on cat-tail. 

etc. 
Aphis prunorum Dob. on plum, Ribes = Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae on Nym- 

phaea, Alisma, Sagittaria, Typha. 
Rhopalosiphum ribis on Ribes = R. lactucae on Sonchus. 

Rhopalosiphum caprese on willow = R, capreae on Umbelliferae. 

Myzus ribis on Ribes = M. galeopsidis on Galeopsis, Stachys 

and Leonurus. 
Myzus cerasi on cherry = M. cerasi on Lepidium. 

Myzus persicae on peach = Rhopalosiphum dianthi on garden 

plants. 
Rhopalosiphum pastinaceae on Lonicera = R. pastinaceae on Pastinaca. 
Hormaphis hamamelidis Fitch on witch = Hormaphis hamamelidis on birch. 

hazel 
Hamamelistes spinosus Shimer on witch = Hamamelistes spinosus Shimer on birch. 

hazel 
Tetraneura graminis on Ulmus = T. graminis on Leersia. 

Thecabius populiconduplifolius on = T. californicus on Ranunculus. 

poplar 
Chermes floccus on white pine = Chermes floccus on Red and Black 

spruce. 
Chermes cooleyi on Blue and Engelmann = Chermes cooleyi on Douglas fir. 

spruces 

Aleyrodid^ (White Flies) 

White Fly (Aleyrodes vapor ariorum Westw.). — (Consult Bull. 140, 
Conn. Agr. Exp. Stn.) Injurious both in adult and nymph stages 
sucking the juices from the under surfaces of the leaves. 

Often abundant in greenhouses, and difficult to control. 

Adult. — Wings pure white, covered with minute particles of wax; 
body yellow, 3^f e i^^^h long; antennae 6-jointed; beak 3-jointed; tarsus 
2-jointed; eyes brown, in two pairs. 

Eggs. — Elongate-oval, J^foo i^^ch long, laid on the leaves; light 
green or white to dark; hatch in 1 1-14 days. Unfertilized eggs produce 
males only; each female usually lays several dozen eggs. 



152 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Nymphs. — Three-one-hundredths inch long, yellowish when full 
grown; long waxen rods on back of "pupa." Life-cycle about 5 weeks. 

Control. — Fumigate at night with hydrocyanic acid gas (J.^ oz. 
potassium or sodium cyanide, i fl. oz. sulphuric acid, 3 fl. oz. water, 
for every 1000 cubic feet of space); spray or wash repeatedly infested 
leaves with whale-oil soap (ij-^ oz. to i gal. water). 

Citrus White Fly {Dialeurodes citri Ashm. = A. citri Riley & 
Howard). — A most serious pest of oranges and other citrous plants of 
the South. (Consult Tech. Ser. No. 12, Pt. V and No. 27, Bur. Ent., 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

PsYLLiD^. (Jumping Plant-lice) 

Pear Psylla (Psylla pyricola Fuerst). — A European pest introduced 
about 1832, and now widely distributed over the Eastern states and 
Canada. 

Adidt. — A dark reddish-brown bug, J{o inch long; abdomen with 
black bands; wings clear with dark veins and laid roof-hke over the body; 
when disturbed it hops and flies away. Eyes bronzy; hibernates on 
trunk in crevices, etc.; 4-5 generations each year. 

Eggs. — Orange-yellow, minute; Jl-fg inch long, pear-shaped; depos- 
ited in crevices of bark or along midrib of leaf; hatch in 2-3 weeks. 

Nymphs. — Broadly oval, flattened, yellowish bodies with crimson 
eyes; later reddish with black markings and conspicuous black wing 
pads; secrete honey dew; 4-5 moults. 

Natural Enemies. — ^Lady-birds, protracted periods of wet cold 
weather in spring, and long spells of hot dry weather in summer. 

Control. — Clean cultivation; bark scraped; spraying with Black 
Leaf 40 ( I pint in 100 gal. water) during warm days in early spring, 
late fall or after blossoming; spraying with lime-sulphur just before 
opening of blossoms. 

Bramble Flea-louse (Trioza tripunctata Fitch). — Occurs on black- 
berry, causing curling of the leaves and dwarfing of the shoots. 

Adult. — A small reddish-brown, jumping plant-louse, J^ inch long; 
wings with three yellowish-brown bands. October-May or June. 

Eggs. — ^Light yellow, deposited in June- July on blackberry. 

Nymphs. — Mature in September-October; young nearly pure whitc-^-ftv 
to a greenish white; older nymphs yellowish. 



classification and description of common insects 1 53 
Cercopid^ (Froghoppers or Spittle Insects) 

(Consult I?Ull. 254, Maine Agr. Expt. Station) 

These insects commonly occur in meadows and are often conspicuous 
by the large number of frothy masses resembling spittle on the leaves 
of grass, clover and weeds. The injury done is difficult to estimate but 
it must be considerable in the aggregate. Philcenus spumarius and P. 
lineatus are common in meadows, and Aphrophora parallela Say on 
pines. 

Meadow Froghopper (Philcenus spumarius Linn.). — This insect 
feeds on oats and a wide range of plants, many of them weeds, but 
not on grasses. The injury is apparent in the formation of withered 
or dwarfed seeds. 

Adult. — Body elongate-oval, head bluntly angular, wing-covers 
extending well beyond the end of abdomen. Color pale grey to black, 
and the markings quite irregalar in form. 

Eggs. — Elongate-elliptical, one side straight, the other curved. 
Shell tough and hard; hibernate in dead stems or leaves in 
meadows. 

Nymphs. — Almost colorless; three ins tars; antennae 9- jointed. The 
viscid frothy masses excreted from anal opening and certain lateral 
glands on seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The masses are 
believed to be protective. 

Control. — Rotation of crops; early mowing to kill the nymphs; 
burning the surface dead grass to kill the eggs. 

Grass-feeding Froghopper {Philcenus lineatus L.). — This spittle 
insect is found almost exclusively on grasses, especially on timothy 
and red top, and undoubtedly does considerable injury. It causes 
withering of the stems and blasting of the heads. 

Adult. — Distinguished from P. spumarius by its longer head, and 
narrowed body with more nearly parallel sides. Front of head rounded- 
angular and as wide as thorax. Color grey with a whitish costal 
margin and a blackish border line. 

Eggs. — Hibernate; hatch late in spring. 

Nymphs. — Three or more ins tars; mature in July. 



154 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Family Cicadellid^ (Leaf-hoppers) 

(Consult Bull. io8, Bur. Ent., U.S. Dept. Agr. and Bull. 238, 248, Maine Agr. 

Exp. Stn.) 

The Leaf-hoppers are divided into four fairly distinct sub-families, 
separated by means of the venation of the wings and by the head parts: 
(i) Bythoscopince occurring mainly on trees or shrubs, and including 
Idiocertis alternatus and the Clover Leaf-hopper (Fig. 99); (2) Cica- 
dellincB, including the Sharpshooter (Oncometopia undata) and Drcecula- 
cephala mollipes occurring in grass land; (3) Jassince, including the 
Shovel-nosed Leaf-hopper (Dorycephalus platyrhynchus) on wild rye 




Fig. 99. — The clover leaf-hopper (Agallia sanguinolenla) : a, adtilt; h, nymph, 
side view; c, nymph, dorsal view; d, face; e, elytron; /, female genitalia; g, male 
genitalia. All enlarged. {After Osborn and Ball.) 

{Elymus), the Inimical Leaf -hopper {DeUocephalus inimicus) on blue 
grass, the Destructive Leaf-hopper {Athysanus exitiosus) in grain fields, 
and the Six-spotted Leaf -hopper {Cicadula 6-notata) in oat fields; 
and (4) TyphlocybincB including the Apple Leaf-hopper {Empoasca 
mali) the Rose Leaf-hopper {Empoa rosce) and the Grape Leaf-hopper 
{Erythroneura comes). 

The presence of leaf-hoppers in very large numbers in meadows and 
pastures in late summer indicates that considerable injury is being done, 
and that they must be reckoned among insects of economic importance. 

Six-spotted Leaf -hopper {Cicadula 6-notata Fallen). — A small yellow 
form 4 mm. long with six black dots on the vertex and a double series 
of black arcs on the front. Occurs on oats, timothy, etc., producing 
spots on the leaves, whitish at first, then turning to brown or black. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 55 

Black Apple Leaf -hopper {Idiocerus fitchi Van D.). — A common pest 
in the Annapolis Valley but the injury is small. The eggs are laid in 
August and hatch from May 2 2d to June 13th. The duration of 
nymphal stage (5 moults) is about 50 days. 

Beet Leaf -hopper {Eutettix tenella Baker). — (Consult Bull. 66, Pt. 
IV, U. S. Bur. Ent.; Utah Bull. 155.) This native leaf-hopper causes 
the "curly-leaf" disease of sugar beets in the Western States and is 
therefore responsible for much loss. Found also on A triplex ^ Russian 
thistle, Sea-blite and Sarcohatus. One brood a year. 

Adult.- — Small, J^ inch long, pale yellowish-green to white, often 
straw-colored. June-August. Hibernates. 

Eggs. — Pale greenish- white, elongated, tapering at the end; inserted 
in the stems or large veins of leaf; hatch in about 2 weeks. 

Nymphs.' — White at first, becoming like the adult but wingless. 
Active. Duration 20-25 days, July-September. 

Grape Leaf -hopper {Erythroneura comes Say). — (See Bull. 215, 
Cornell Ag. Exp. St., 1904.) This bug is a very common pest in 
vineyards, and occasionally does considerable injury to the leaves which 
curl and turn brown. During the summer the nymphs feed on the 
under surface of the leaves and give them an unnatural spotted ap- 
pearance. The adults, mature in August, also do much harm. Feeds 
also on Virginia Creeper, Strawberry, etc. 

Adult. — One-eighth inch long; wings and back variably marked 
with yellow and red. Hibernates in nearby grass and wood-lands, 
and emerges about May ist. 

Eggs. — Three-one-hundredths inch long, semi-transparent, slightly 
curved and faintly yellow; deposited in June beneath the lower skin 
of grape leaves; hatch in 9-14 days. 

Nymphs. — ^Light yellowish-green with lemon-yellowish stripes on 
each side of the body; pass through 5 stages in 20-23 days; mature in 
July-August. 

Control. — Spray thoroughly with Black Leaf 40, tobacco extract or 
kerosene emulsion when young nymphs appear; clean culture. 

Apple Leaf -hopper (Empoasca mali Le Baron). — (Consult Bull. 
108, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, and Journ. Econ. Entomology, 
Vol. 2, p. 54; Vol. II, pp. 144-148.) Occurs also on beans, alfalfa, 
clover, potatoes, currants and gooseberries. 

Adult.- — Slender and cylindrical, J^ inch long; brilliant grass-green; 



156 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

white lines and dots between the eyes; a series of six whitish spots 
on front margin of prothorax, two whitish h'nes on mesothorax form- 
ing a letter H; three dots on scutellum; strongly convex above; front 
rounded; wings thin and uniform, folded close about the body; legs 
slender, hindmost larger; three or four generations each year. Adults 
may live 14-30 days. Hibernates. 

Eggs. — Autumn eggs laid in September under epidermis of apple, 
summer eggs under epidermis of petioles of apple, clover, etc.; hya- 
line, cylindrical. 

Nymphs. — Light green; feed on under side of leaves causing white 
spots, most injurious in May-June; five nymphal stages covering 22 
days. 

Control. — Spray in spring with a mixture of Black Leaf 40 and whale- 
oil soap; collect adults by driving tanglefoot screens along the rows 
in bush-fruits. 

Rose Leaf -hopper (Empoa rosce Linn.). — ^Leaves of rose bushes and 
apple trees are often badly infested with the Rose Leaf-hopper, and all 
stages of growth may be readily found. Eggs are laid in July, and 
eggs are again laid in the fall beneath the bark of young wood of roses, 
blackberry, and strawberry runners, where they stay over winter. 
Migration from the roses occurs in June. Controlled by lime-sulphur 
and Black Leaf 40 during the early nymph stages (Consult Bui. 148 
Oregon Ag. Exp, St.) 

ClCADID^ 

Periodical Cicada {Cicada septendecem Linn.). — (Consult Bull. 71, 
Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) Often called the Seventeen-year Locust. 
Adults damage orchards and nurseries by making egg punctures in 
the twigs. 

Adult. — One and one-fourth inches long, black; abdomen banded 
with red; eyes red; veins red at base and along front margin; June; 
duration about 30 days. Dwarf forms also occur. 

Eggs. — Each female lays 300 to 500 eggs in punctures made by 
ovipositor in twigs and stems; eggs hatch in 6 to 8 weeks. 

Nymphs. — Burrow in the ground, feeding on juices of roots and 
humus of soil; moult probably 4 or 6 times at intervals of 2 to 4 
years. In the spring of the seventeenth year they emerge and moult, 
changing to adults. A race or sub-species having a 13-year period 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 57 



occurs mainly in the South. Over twenty broods have been recog- 
nized and deHmited. 

Control. — Prune off affected twigs in July and burn before the hatch- 
ing of the eggs; allow hogs the run of infested land during April and 
May; avoid pruning the orchard 
the year before a cicada year. 

N atural Enemies. — A digger 
wasp {Megastizus speciosus), egg 
parasites (cecidomyiid and chal- 
cid); mites; the English sparrow, 
catbird, robin, etc. 

The Dog -day Harvest-fly 
{Cicada tibicen Linn.). — Often oc- 
curs but is not of much import- 
ance economically. It is black 
and green, and white powdered 
underneath. 

Membracid^ (Tree-hoppers) 

Buffalo Tree-hopper (Ceresa 
bubalus Fab.). — (Consult Circ. 23, 
Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
This bug is a common pest of or- 
chards and shade trees feeding on 
the sap of apple, maple, etc. It 
injures the trees by making longi- 
tudinal incisions in the bark, which 
become points of weakness (Fig. 
100). 

Adult. — A grass-green bug, % 
inch long, with the pronotum 
greatly enlarged, and expanding 
laterally into two horns and pos-' 
teriorly into a long point. July- 
September. 

Eggs. — Dirty-whitish, cyHndrical, slightly curved, tapering toward 
outer end; Jf g inch long. Laid in the bark in batches of 6-12 in two 




Fig. 100. — Twigs showing egg punc- 
tures of the Buffalo tree-hopper. 



158 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



curved slits made by ovipositor. Egg-laying occurs in August and 
September; hatching the following May and June. 

Nymphs. — Covered along the centre of the back v^^ith numerous 
forked or barbed spines or projections, a pair to each segment. General 
feeders in or near orchards. 

Control. — Thorough cultivation of the orchard and destruction of 
weedy borders in May and June. 

ORDER HEMIPTERA ( = FORMER SUB-ORDER HETEROPTERA) 

Chief Economic Families^ (after Comstock) (Fig. loi) 

A. Antennae with 3-4 segments. 
B. Beak 3-jointed. 




Pig. ioi. — Fore wings of Heteroptera. i, Capsidae; 2, Pyrrhocoridae; 3, 
Lygaeidae; 4, Coreidae; 5, Nabidic; 6, Acanthidce; 7, Typical wing showing parts: 
m., membrane; cu., cuneus; e., embolium, co., corium; cl., clavus. {After Comstock.) 

^ Other Hemiptera Families are of frequent occurrence, especially in or about 
water. For convenience of reference the common families (old Hepteroptera) are 
synopsized as follows: 

A. Short-horned Bugs. — Live in or near water; antennae short and concealed 
beneath the head. 

Families: Corisidae, Notonectidae, Nepidae, Belostomatidae, Naucoridae, 
and Galgulidae. 
AA. Long-horned Bugs. — Antennae at least as long as the head. 

B. Semi-aquatic Bugs. — Saldid^e, Veliidx, Hydrobatidae, Limnobatidae. 
BB. Land-hugs. 

C. Antennie 4-jointed. Emesidae, Reduviidae, Nabidae, Phymatidae, 
Aradidae, Tingitidae, Acanthiida^, Capsidae, Pyrrhocorida?, 
Lygaeidae, Berytidae, Coreidae. 
CC. Antennae 5-jointed. Pentatomidae, Cydnidae, Corimclaenidae, 
Scutelleridae. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 59 

C. Front legs with thick femora. — Phymatidm (Ambush- Bugs) 

P-43- 
CC. Front legs normal or slightly thickened. 

D. Body not flattened. — Reduviida (Assassin Bugs), p. 43. 
DD. Body flattened. 

E. Tarsus with 2 segments. — Aradida (Flat Bugs). 
EE. Tarsus with 3 segments, dorsum flat, beak short. — 
Acanthiidcd (Bedbugs), p. 167. 
KB. Beak 4-jointed. 

C. Ocelli absent. 

D. Membrane of front wings with about eight branching 
veins; cuneus absent and with two large cells at base. — 
Pyrrhocorida (Red Bugs). 
DD. Membrane of front wings with no branching veins; 
cuneus present and with one or two closed cells at base. 
— MiridcB or CapsidcB (Leaf Bugs), p. 163. 
CC. Ocelli present. 

D. Front legs fitted for grasping. — Nabidce (Damsel Bugs), 

P- 43- 
DD. Front legs normal. 

E. Membrane of front wings with 4 or 5 simple veins 
arising from its base. — Lygmda (Chinch Bugs), p. 
161. 
EE. Membrane of front wings with many forked veins 
arising from a transverse basal vein. — Coreida 
(Squash Bugs), p. 159. 
AA. Antennae with 5 segments. 

B. Scutellum flat, narrowest behind; tibiae usually without spines. — 
Pentatomida (Stink Bugs), p. 166. 
BB. Scutellum convex, covering nearly the whole abdomen; tibiae strongly 
spinose; prothorax rounded in front and straight behind; scutellum 
margin furrowed. — Corimelcenidce (Negro Bugs), p. 167. 
BBB. Scutellum convex; prothorax not as above; scutellum with lateral 
margin unfurrowed. — ScutelleridcB. 



Coreida (Squash Bugs) 

Box-elder Plant Bug {Leptocoris trivittatus) . — ^Leaves attacked turn 
yellow and drop. Occurs in the West and is spreading eastward. 

Adult. — A blackish bug 3^^ inch long, with three broad red lines on 
the black thorax; veins of wings red, also edges of harder parts of wings; 
mature in autumn. Hibernates under rubbish or in crevices. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in spring and early summer on box-elder trees. 



i6o 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Nymphs. — Also show bright red markings of adult. Very young 
forms are bright red; mature in less than 2 weeks. 

Control. — Collect bugs in sunny days in winter from trunks of trees; 

spray young forms with tobacco- 
soap solution. 

Squash Bug {Anasa tristis 
DeG.). — (Consult Cir. 39, Div. 
Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.) Infests 
pumpkins and squashes. A suck- 
ing insect which should not be 
confused with the cucumber or 
squash beetle. 

Adult. — Dirty blackish-brown 
above and mottled-yellowish be- 
neath; J^ inch long; wings folded 
diagonally across the back; beak 
4-jointed; ill-smelling (Fig. 102). 
Eggs. — Laid in clusters on the 
underside of leaves; red or bronze, 
smooth and shining; slightly flat- 
Hatching in 8-13 days. 
Nymphs. — When newly hatched they are red and green but later 
they become black like the adults but without wings and with propor- 




PlG. 102. — Squash bug {Anasa tris- 
tis): a, mature female; b, side view of 
head showing beak; c, abdominal seg- 
ment of male; d, same of female. {After 
Chittenden.) 



tened on two sides; }y^^ inch long. 




Fig. 103. — Nymphs of squash bug, showing five stages. {After Chittenden, U. S. 

Bur. Ent.) 

tionately longer legs and antennae, later developing wing pads and 
becoming more and more like the adult. Five moults occur (Fig. 103). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS l6l 

Life-history. — ^It hibernates as an adult under rubbish, in out- 
buildings, etc. In spring the adult injures the young squash plants by 
sap punctures, and at that time lays eggs; nymphs reach maturity in 
July-August. Two broods in a season in the South. 

Control. — Spray with kerosene emulsion; trap the adults under 
bits of board; destroy the egg-masses; destroy the vines in fall; plant 
early squash plants among the cucumbers and melons as traps. 




Lyg^id^ (Chinch Bugs, etc.) 

Chinch Bug {Blissus leucopterus Say). — (Consult Bull. 95, 111. Agr. 
Exp. Stn.; Bulls. 15, 69; Circ. 113; Farmers' Bull. 132, Div. Ent., 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) A serious native Ameri- 
can pest, especially in the Central States to 
cereals and corn crops and to timothy 
meadows; widely distributed in the Eastern 
half of the Continent from the West Indies 
to Canada. 

Adult. — A black bug, J^ inch long; wings 
white and marked by a small black triangle 
on their outer margins; bases of the antennae 
and the legs are red. Short winged forms 
in the East and along the sea coast and 
Great Lakes. April-May, and August (Figs. 
104 and 105). 

Eggs. — Cylindrical, -Jf 00 ii^ch long;squarer 
at one end; whitish at first, becoming amber-ed. 
in May, but in 10 days in August. 

Nymphs. — Four moults, the successive ins tars showing changes in 
size and markings, the first three often called the red stages. In the 
first stage it is pale red throughout with a yellow band across the base of 
abdomen; in the second stage the head and pro thorax become darker, 
the abdomen vermilion with pale yellow band; in the third stage the 
color is decidedly darker throughout, and in the fourth the red has 
disappeared, general color varying from black in front to dusky grey 
behind (Fig. 106). 

Life-history. — The bugs hibernate under rubbish, in thickets and in 

clumps of grass. In April and May females lay their eggs on the roots 
11 



Fig. 104. — Chinch bug: 
adult. (From Webster.) 



Hatch in 2-3 weeks 



l62 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



or the bases of the stems of wheat and grasses. Eggs hatch in 2 or 3 
weeks or less. The nymphs reach maturity in 6 or 7 weeks, when a 
migration occurs on foot to other plants. Eggs are laid on the stems 
and leaves of corn and the nymphs attain maturity in autumn. There 
are, therefore, two broods in a year. 




Pig. 105.— Chinch bug: adults of short-winged form. 

Webster.) 



Much enlarged. (After 



Control. — Clean up rubbish and burn the dried grasses in which the 
pest winters in late fall or early spring; place barriers of dust or oil or 
tar lines; plow furrow about fields to be protected; the use of muscardine 
fungus. 




Pig. 106. — The chinch bug: a, h, eggs; c, newly hatched larva, or nymph; 
d, its tarsus; e, larva after first molt; /, same, after second molt; g, last-stage larva; 
the natural sizes indicated at sides; h, enlarged leg of perfect bug; j, tarsvis of same, 
still more enlarged; i, proboscis, or beak, enlarged. {From Riley.) 

Parasites and Enemies. — Triphleps insidiosns Say, Milyas cinctus 
Fab., Agonoderus pallipes Fab., coccinellids, Reduviolus ferus, Pagasa 
fusca, Blechrus, Chrysopa, quail, frog, Sporotrichum glohulijerum Speg. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 63 

MiRiD^ = Capsid^ (Leaf Bugs) 

Four-lined Leaf Bug {Pcecilocapsus lineatus Fab.). — (Consult Bull. 
58, Cornell Agr. Exp. St.) This bug is one of the most common in- 
sects found during summer on field and garden vegetation. It is oc- 
casionally destructive in flower gardens. 

Adult. — A greenish-yellow bug with two black spots on the thorax 
and four black stripes down the back; %o inch long; abundant in June 
and July. 

^^^^' — White, laid on terminal twigs of currant and other bushes 
in the fall; hatch in the spring. 

Nymphs. — Red when young, but blacker when older, mature in 
about 20 days. They injure the tips of shoots and cause the leaves 
to curl up and become brown 
spotted. Currants, gooseberries, 
mint and sage are especially liable 
to injury. 

Control. — Spray with nicotine 
sulphate or other tobacco extracts, 
or kerosene emulsion. 

Tarnished Plant Bug (Lygus 

pratensis L.). — (Consult Bulls. 346 Fig. 107. — Tarnished plant hng (Lygus 

and 391, Agr. Exp. Sta., Cornell.) Pr^^'^^i^)- Wter Chittenden,) 
A very common insect, feeding on a wide range of plants. It causes 
the well-known injury to the buds of aster, dahlia and chrysanthe- 
mum, and to the buds and blossoms of orchard trees (Fig. 107). 

Adult. — Brownish, mottled with yellow and reddish. Head yel- 
lowish-brown, usually with three lines; prothorax bronzy brown, 
usually with four blackish spots in a row; scutellum brownish, usually 
with a Y-shaped spot. Wings bronzy brown mottled with yellowish- 
brown and reddish. Antennae dark brown; legs brown, tibiae banded 
near base and tarsi dusky. Under surface dark at centre with a lighter 
lateral stripe and a marginal brown band with yellow spots. Length 
^^ to 3^^ inch. Hibernates. 

Eggs. — One-twenty-fifth inch long, flask-shaped, and obliquely 
truncate; deposited in stems, etc.; duration 10 days. 

Nymphs. — Five stages; active; feeding on juices of plants. 

Life-history. — Cycle completed in 25 to 30 days in late summer 




164 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

with probably four or five generations each year. Adults winter in 
sheltered situations; eggs laid in early spring and first nymphs appear 
in May. Broods not well distinguished, and insects to be seen from 
spring until fall. 

Control. — ^No effective remedy; spraying with nicotine sulphate, 
kerosene-soap emulsions and fish-oil soap is fairly satisfactory if ap- 
plied in early morning. 

False Tarnished Plant Bug (Lygus communis Knight). — (Consult 
Can. Ent. 48, 10 and Bull. 8, Nova Scotia.) A serious pest in pear 
orchards in New York State, causing knotty deformed and gritty fruit. 
Plum and quince are also injured. The Var. nova scotiensis injures 
apple. 

Adult. — Pale green to light brown; J^ inch long; two black rays on 
disk of pronotum; membrane of upper wing with three brown spots 
near tip of areole; legs and antennae long. Most commonly breeds on 
Cornus spp. 

Eggs. — Smooth and cylindrical, elongated, 0.8 mm. long; yellowish- 
white, translucent. Inserted in the bark of small branches July- Aug. ; 
hibernate, hatching during blossoming time. 

Nymphs. — Pale yellow at first, becoming greenish; feeding on the 
leaves; five stages, maturing about middle to end of June. They 
puncture the young fruits, often several punctures on one fruit, causing 
the fruit to fall or depressions and deformities in apples and grittiness 
in pears. Leaves, stems and blossoms are freely attacked. Dura- 
tion about 32 days. Carrier of European Canker and Fire Blight 
(Brittain). 

Control. — I. Spraying with Black Leaf 40 (i part to 1000 water) 
just after the petals fall. 

2. Banding the trunks to prevent the bugs from crawling up. 

3. Cultivation of soil up to July to keep down all plant growths. 
The Var. nova scotiensis (Green Apple Bug) occurs abundantly 

as an apple pest in Nova Scotia. It is more slender and much paler 
than the typical communis. 

Lygus invitus Say, according to Knight, breeds only on elm, and is 
not responsible for injuries to pear and apple. 

A very common capsid of meadows is Miris dolobratus L., a form 
long and narrow, % inch long; greenish, yellow with black markings; 
two black stripes extending from the eyes over the thorax. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 165 

Clouded Apple Capsid (Neurocolpus nuhilus Say). — A widely dis- 
tributed capsid, injuring apple trees and fruit in Ontario. 

Adult. — One-fourth inch long, larger and narrower i\vd^nLygus pra- 
tensis. Color variable, but dorsally mostly cinnamon brown to red- 
dish-black; has a dull felty appearance; ventrally light green. Basal 
joint of antennae stout, dark, and with clavate dark brown hair; second 
segment slender, elongate; legs slender with reddish bands. 

Eggs. — Curved, nearly colorless, with a glistening white cap. In- 
serted into tissues of new growth; egg-laying period July i5th-Sept. 
ist; eggs usually laid singly behind buds. Hibernate. Hatch about 
first week in June. 

Nymph.— This stage lasts from 3 to 4 weeks. At first nearly color- 
less, but later is green with dull reddish marks on back and sides. 
Control. — Clean cultivation, until end of June; spray the leaves 
thoroughly with soap and Black Leaf 40 soon after the nymphs hatch. 
Apple Red Bugs {Heterocordylus malinus Reuter and Lygidea 
mendax Reuter). — (Consult Cornell Bull. 291.) These bugs cause 
spotting of the leaves, and they puncture the fruit in June, causing 
deformation. 

Adults. — One-fourth inch long; Heterocordylus varies from red to 
black; wings red, black along inner edge and with an ovate black spot 
near outer margin; scutellum, legs and antennae black, dorsum covered 
with white, scale-like hairs; Lygidea is lighter colored and without hairs 
on back; head and pro thorax orange-red, scutellum orange-red in front 
and blackish posteriorly; wings with a band of orange-red along outer 
edges, legs darker yellow. 

Eggs. — Dull whitish, curved and slightly compressed, inserted into 
the bark of smaller branches; hatch soon after opening of leaves of 
fruit-buds. 

Nymphs. — At first red; five stages; Heterocordylus has dusky mark- 
ings on thorax and no fine short hairs on thorax. 

Control. — Applications of Black Leaf 40 (i pt. to 100 gal.) just 
before blossoms open, and just after falling of the petals. 

Hop Red Bug (Paralacoris hawleyi Knight). — This capsid is a 
pest of hops in New York. It stunts and deforms the vines and per- 
forates the leaves. 

Adult. — One-fourth inch long, black with hemelytra hyaline or pale 
yellowish, and cuneus reddish. July. 



1 66 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Eggs. — One-fifteenth inch long, dirty white, curved and with two 
prominent white incurving hooks at micropylar end; smooth and glossy. 
Inserted in the bark or wood of hop poles, Aug.-Sept. Duration 9- 
g}'2 nionths. Hatch throughout June. 

Nymphs. — Five stages; duration about 30 days. Active. 

Enemies. — Apeteticus maculiventris, a Pentatomid; Reduviolus sub- 
coleoptratus, a nabid; and a species of Trombidium. 

Pentatomid^ (Stink Bugs) 

Harlequin Cabbage Bug {Murgantia histrionica Hahn). — A native 
of Mexico and Central America. Injurious in the Southern states 
but its ravages do not extend much farther north than New 
Jersey and Long Island. Also known as ''calico bug" "fire bug," 
and ''terrapin bug." Attacks cabbage, radish and turnip. 

Adult. — A moderate sized red and black plant bug, the markings 
running more or less transversely and alternating. In South active 
throughout the year; in North hibernates as adult. 

Eggs. — Resemble ''miniature white barrels bound with black hoops 
and with black spots set in for bung-holes." Usually laid in two rows, 
fastened by one end to under surface of leaf. Hatch in 2-11 days. 

Nymphs. — Like adults in markings; antennae with 4 joints; 5 
instars, first instar glossy yellow; duration 2-10 weeks but shorter in 
the South. Probably 4 or 5 generations in the South and 2 or 3 in 
the North. 

Control. — Trap-crop of kale, rape, mustard, radish or turnip; 
clean farm practice; bounties for collections. 

Green Soldier Bug {Nezara hilaris Say). — (Consult Ohio Bull. 
310.) In N. E. parts of U. S. and Canada; a general feeder, and a 
serious pest of the peach industry in Ohio. 

Adult. — Oblong-oval; bright green, finely punctate; edges of head, 
thorax and abdomen white-yellowish or rufous; % inch long. Hiber- 
nates. 

Eggs. — ^Light yellow; oval; circular cap with a row of short spine- 
like processes. Laid in clusters on leaves or fruits in June- July. Hatch 
in 7 to 8 days. 

Nymph. — Five instars; mature in 50-75 days. Injures by punc- 
turing the fruit. 

Parasites. — A Proctotrypid — Trissolous euschisti Ash. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 167 

In addition to the foregoing forms, among the more common 
northern plant-sucking species of this family are Nezara pennsylvanica 
a large green, flattened bug, ^^ inch long; Cosmopepla carnifex, shining 
black and spotted with red and orange, }i inch long; Leioderma ligata, 
a large broad form with a red margin and a red spot on the middle of 
its back. 

Among the blood-sucking species are Podisus spinosus, recognized 
by the conspicuous spine on each side of prothorax, and Brachymena 
spp. mostly large grey tree bugs; Perillus circumcindus which attacks 
the Colorado potato beetle. 

CoRiMEL^.NiD^ (Negro Bugs) 

Negro Bug {Corimelcena pulicaria Germer). — Feeds on strawberries, 
blackberries, raspberries and celery, imparting an unpleasant odor. 

Adult. — A small shiny black bug }/i inch long, with a white stripe 
on each side of body. 

Eggs. — Orange-yellow, oval; laid singly on the leaves; hatch in 
about 16 days. 

Nymphs. — Feeding on leaves and fruit. 

AcANTHiiD^ (Bed Bugs) 

Bed Bug (Cimex lectularius L.). — Adult. Reddish-brown, J^ 
inch or less in length; never fully winged but with wing pads; 
flattened; hiding in day-time in cracks but active at night; "buggy" 
odor. 

Eggs. — ^ White, oval, ^^q inch long; laid in cracks and crevices; 
each female lays about 200 eggs, 50 at a time. 

Nymphs. — -White at first but red after feeding; resemble adults 
but body more slender and head larger; 11 weeks to mature; one 
generation in a season. 

Control. — -Fumigate with sulphur or carbon bisulphide; wash 
floors thoroughly with soapsuds and spray with benzine. 

ORDER SIPHUNCULATA (SUCKING LICE) 

Chief Families 

A. Eyes large, convex, distinctly pigmented; beak short. — 
Pediculidce. 

AA. Eyes very indistinct or wanting; beak long. — Hcematopimdce. 



i68 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Pediculid^ 

(Consult Bull. 5, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; Bull. 48, Minn. Agr. Exp. St.) 

Most domestic animals at some time or other are liable to become 
infested with sucking lice which cause considerable irritation. The 
eggs or "nits" are attached to the hairs, and the lice by means of a 
beak suck the blood of their victims. 

Treatment consists in the application of tobacco water or Black 
Leaf 40 (i part to 1000 water), dilute carbolic acid, kerosene emulsion, 
sulphur and mercuric ointment, or an infusion of 4 
oz. stavesacre and i oz. hellebore, or creolin solution. 
Two genera are of importance economically — 
Pediculus occurring on man, and Hcematopinus on 
domestic animals. 

Head-louse of Man {Pediculus capitis De Geer). 
— Whitish with faint dark markings on sides. Eggs 
(50) glued to hairs, whitish, hatch in 6 days and 
young become mature in about 3 weeks (Fig. 108). 
Body-louse of Man {Pediculus vestimenti LeBich) . 
— Similar in shape to preceding, but larger and at 
maturity with upper surface transversely banded 
with black. Eggs laid in the folds in clothing. 
Bacot {Parasitology, 1917) states that P. capitis and 
P. vestimenti may cross-pair with fertile offspring. 
He found that the average number of eggs per day 
was 3.7 for capitis and 6.4 for vestimenti. The egg period for the 
latter was estimated at 12 days, and 12 days more for the maturity 
of the female. "Allowing an average of 8 eggs per day, spread 
over a fertile period of 40 days we find that during her life a single 
female may. have 4160 offspring." A carrier of typhus fever. A 
common pest of army camps. 

Control Measures. — Change clothing as often as possible; wash 
infested clothing with a cresol soap made as follows: water 10 gal., 
Jeyes' Fluid ij^ oz., soft soap i}^ lb.; bathe body using cresol soap; 
place N.C.I, powder in shirt and trousers (naphthaline 96 per cent., 
creosote 2 per cent., iodoform 2 per cent.). 

Crab-louse of Man {Pediculus pubis = Phthirius inguinalis Leach). 
— Body as wide as long, with strong legs. Eggs glued to hairs. Mouth- 




F I G. 108.— 
Head louse {Pedi- 
culus capitis). En 
larged. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 69 

parts form a fleshy, extensible, unjointed beak. Tarsi with a strong 
curved claw. 

Control. — Cleanliness, sulphur and mercurial ointments. 

H^MATOPINID^ 

Hog-louse (Hcematopinus urius Nitzsch). — One-fourth inch long; 
broad abdomen, long head; grey with sides black. 

Horse-louse {H cBmatopinus asinilAnn.). — One-sixth inch long, half 
as wide, long and slender head with parallel sides. 

Short-nosed Cattle-louse {Hcematopinus eurysternus Nitzsch). — 
One-sixth inch long, half as wide; head rounded in front, as wide as long. 
Infests the neck and shoulders chiefly. Eggs white, hatching in 7-8 
days; life-cycle 22-24 days. Each female lays from 35-50 eggs. 

Long-nosed Cattle-louse {HcBmatopinus vituli Linn.).— One-eighth 
inch long, one-third as wide; long slender head. Life-cycle from 25- 
27 days. 

Dog-louse {Hcematopinus piliferus Burm.). — One- tenth inch long, 
abdomen wide, yellowish. 

VI. LEPmOPTERA (BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS) ^ 

Common Families (Figs. 109-121) 

A. Antennae club-shaped at apex; wings at rest held erect; day-fliers. — The 
Butterflies {Rhopalocera). 
B. Butterflies with cubitus apparently 4-branched. — Papilionidce (Swal- 
low-tails), p. 174. 
BB. Butterflies with cubitus apparently 3-branched. 

C. Fore-legs normal. — Pieridce (Pierids), p. 175. 
CC. Fore-legs reduced in size. — LyccenidcB (Gossamer- wings). 
CCC. Fore-legs aborted, mere tippets. — Nymphalidce'^ (Four-footed 
Butterflies), p. 176. 
AA. Antennae clubbed but terminated by a hook; wings at rest usually held 
erect. — Hesperidcs (Skippers). 
AAA. Antennae not clubbed at apex; wings at rest held flat or folded like a roof 
over the body. — The Moths (Heterocera). 
B. Hind wings with one or two anal veins. — {Macrolepidoptera in part). 
C. Frenulum present. 

D. Subcosta and radius of hind wings connected by a strong 
oblique vein. — Sphingidce (Hawk Moths), p. 177. 

I Handlirsch groups the orders Mecoptera (Panorpatae) , Trichoptera and Lepidoptera under 
the Sub-class Panorpoidea. 

2The Danaida family is now separated from the Nymphalidae on the basis of the bare 
antennae and forked base of subcostal vein. 



170 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

DD. Subcosta and radius of hind wings not connected by a cross 
vein. 
E. Cubitus of fore wings apparently 3-branched. 

F. Basal part of subcosta of hind wings joined to 

radius for a distance then bending sharply toward 

costal margin. — Geometrina (Geometrids), p. 204. 

FF. Basal part of subcosta of hind wings not as in F. — 

Notodontidm (Prominents), p. 198. 




Fig. 109. — Venation of a papilionid 
(Papilio) . {After Comstock.) 



Fig. no. — Venation of a pierid 
(Pieris). (After Comstock.) 



EE. Cubitus of fore wings apparently 4-branched. 

F. Subcosta of hind wings either separate from 

or joined for a short distance to radius. 

G. Ocelli absent; antennae pectinate; cubitus 

of hind wings apparently 4-branched. — 

Liparidce = LymantriidcB (Tussock 

Moths), p. 200. 

GG. Ocelli present; antennae mostly simple; 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 171 





Fig. III. — Venation of a danaid 
{Danais). {After Comstock.) 



2d A 

Fig. 112. — Venation of a saturniid 
{Anisota). {After Comstock.) 



Rz «3 





Fig. 113. — Venation of a 
geometrid (Dyspteris). (After 
Comstock.) 



Fig. 114. — Venation of an 
arctiid (Halisidota) . (After Com- 
stock.) 



172 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



,'Ri,-P^ 





A A ^ A 

Fig. 115. — Venation of a notodontid Fig. 116. — Venation of a noctuid 
{Noiodonta). {After Cotnslock.) (Agrotis). {After Comstock.) 




R.JiP^f^^ 



Fig. 117. — Venation of a lasiocampid 
{Malacosoma). {After Comstock.) 




A A 

Fig. 118. — Venation of a pyralid 
{Pyralis) . {After Comstock.) 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 73 



cubitus of hind wings apparently 3- 
branched. — Noctuida (Owlet Moths), p. 184. 



R. R. 



Rz Pi^ 




Fig. 119. — Venation of a tortricid 
(Cacoecia) . (After Comstock.) 



2dA 

id A 

Fig. 120. — Venation of Thyridopteryx. 
{After Comstock.) 




Fig. 121. — Venation of a cossid (Prionoxystus). {After Comstock.) 

FF. Subcosta of hind wings united with radius for a 
considerable distance; cubitus of hind wings 
apparently 4-branched. — ArctiidcB {T'lgti Moths), 
p. 181. 



174 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

CC. Frenulum absent. 

D. Cubitus of both wings apparently 4-branched. 

Hind wings with humeral veins. — Lasiocampidce (Tent- 
caterpillar Moths), p. 203. 
DD. Cubitus of both wings apparently 3-branched; tongue 
absent; tibia without spurs. — Saturniina (Silkworm Moths), 
p. 179. 
BB. Hind wings with usually three complete anal veins. (2 to 4 anal veins 

in hind wings of yEgeriidae). 
I C. Wings transparent; free from scales; fore wings narrow. — 

Mgeriidce (Clear- winged Moths), p. 216. 
CC. Small moths; wings covered with scales. — {Microlepidoplera). 

D. Subcosta and radius of hind wings fused or approximate. 
^ — Pyralidina (Pyralids), p. 207. 

DD. Subcosta and radius of hind wings far apart. 

E. Second anal vein of hind wings forked at base. — ■ 
Tortriclna (Tortricids), p. 218. 
EE. Second anal vein of hind wings not forked at base. — 
Tineina (Tineids), p. 236. 
CCC. Large or medium-sized moths; wings usually covered with 
scales. — (Macrolepidoptera in part). 
D. Anal veins of fore wings partially fused; hind wings some- 
times with two anal veins. — Psychidce (Bag-worms), p. 207. 
DD. Anal veins of fore wings not fused. — Cossidce (Carpenter 
Moths), p. 237. 

Note. — The Geomctrina includes the following families: Ennomidae, Geometridae, 
Hydriomenidae, Sterrhidae and Monocteniidae. 

The Pyralidina includes the Pyraustidae, Pyralididae, Galeriidae, Crambidae, 
Phycitidae, Pterophoridae and Orneodidae. 

The Tortricina includes the Eucosmidae, Conchylidae and Tortricidae. 

The Tineina includes Tineidae, Yponomentidae, Plutellidae, Gelechiidae, Hap- 
loptiliidae, Lyonetiidae, Nepticulidae, Tischeriidae, Gracilariidae. (Consult Com- 
stock's Manual and Barnes and McDunnough's Checklist of Lepidoptera.) 

PAPILIONIDiE 

These butterflies are called ''Swallow-tails" and are readily recog- 
nized. The more common forms are the Tiger Swallow-tail {Papilio 
turnus, two forms), the Zehra Swallow-tail {Papilio ajax, three forms), 
the Green-clouded Swallow-tail (Papilio troilus) and the Black Swallow- 
tail {Papilio polyxenes) which feeds on celery and other members of the 
carrot family. 

Black Swallow-tail {Papilio polyxenes Fab.). 

Adult. — Wings black with two transverse rows of yellow spots on the 
hind wings; between the rows of yellow spots are several flashes of blue. 
Two broods, May and July. Wing expanse 3-4 inches. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 75 

Eggs. — Nearly spherical; honey-yellow changing in parts to reddish- 
brown; laid singly on leaves of food-plant; hatch in 5 to 9 days. 

Larva. — The Celery Caterpillar; mature form 2 inches long; green, 
each segment with a black band and spotted with yellow. Scent- 
horns orange. 

Chrysalis. — Dull grey, mottled with dull brown, roughened with 
larger projections pointing forward; swung in a loop of silk; summer 
chrysalis lasts from 9 to 18 days; hibernates. 

Control. — Hand-picking, or the application of arsenicals for large 
infested areas. 

PIERIDiE 

The more common butterflies of this family are the Cabbage 
Butterfly {Pieris rapes), the Grey- veined White {P. napi), the Check- 
ered White (P. protodice) the. Clouded Sulphur {Eurymus philodice) 
and the Alfalfa Caterpillar {Eurymus eurytheme). 

Cabbage Butterfly {Pieris rapcelAnn.) . — Introduced from Europe via 
Quebec about i860. Occurs throughout United States and Canada. 

The caterpillars first injure young plants, riddhng the outer 
leaves, later they attack the tender inner leaves where they are hard to 
poison, and which they render unsightly by reason of the abundant dark 
green excrement. Sometimes they eat into the centre of the head of 
cabbage where it is impossible to deal with them. 

Adult. — Wing expanse 2 inches, dull white above; fore wings with 
black tips and two spots in the female and one spot in the male. Two 
full broods and a partial third in the North, and more in the South. 
Life-cycle 3 to 6 weeks. 

Eggs. — Oval, yellow, ribbed, lengthwise and crosswise; laid singly 
on end on the leaves; hatch in 4 to 8 days. 

Larva. — The Green Cabbage worm; i3-^ inches long, velvety green 
with a narrow greenish-yellow band on back and on each side. A row 
of yellow spots. Matures in 10 to 14 days; feeds also on mustard and 
other crucifers. 

Chrysalis. — ^Three-fourth inch long, hght brown; attached and 
swung by a girdle of silk. Winters in this condition. Duration in 
summer 7 to 12 days. 

Enemies.- — Apanteles glomeratus, Pteromalus puparum, psipei wasps, 
ambush bug. 



176 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Control. — Spray every week with arsenical solution; i lb. Paris 
Green, 4 lb. whale-oil soap, 40 gal. water before heads form and with 
hellebore or pyrethrum after; spray with salt-tobacco solution (i lb., 
I lb., 5 gal. water). 

Pieris napi Linn, is a native species, but not so abundant as P. 
rapce. Wings nearly all white. 

Alfalfa Caterpillar (Eurymus eurytheme Boisd.). — (Consult Bull. 
124, U. S. Dept. Agr.) Common, and a serious pest of alfalfa in the 
West. 

Adult. — Yellow with the outer margins of wings black, dotted with 
white in the female. A black dot in the middle of the fore wings and a 
pale yellow spot in the middle of the hind wings. Two or more broods, 
March-April. 

Eggs. — Minute, ribbed and cross-lined, spindle-shaped; laid on the 
new growth. 

Larva. — Dark green, with a faint white line on each side; i inch 
long. Spiracles black and red. Strips the leaves leaving bare stalks. 

Pupa. — Yellowish-green, J^ inch long, suspended, head up, by two 
threads to the stalks of alfalfa, weeds and grasses. 

Parasites. — Tachinids — Phorocera and Forntina; also Apanteles, 
Pteromaliis and Tricho gramma. A bacterial disease. 

Control. — Pasture infested fields or cut when larvae appear in 
numbers; irrigate after cutting; disk in the fall; co-operation. 

NYMPHALIDJE 

This family includes a large number of common butterflies such as 
the Fritillarias or Argynnids; the Angle-wings or Vanessids, including 
the beautiful Red Admiral {Vanessa atalanta); the Painted Beauty 
{Vanessa virginiensis); the Cosmopolitan Butterfly {Vanessa cardui); 
the Mourning Cloak {Aglais antiopa); the Comma Butterflies {Poly- 
gonia f annus, P. comma, the "Hop Merchant," P. progne and P. inter- 
rogationis); the Purple Butterflies {Basilarchia arthemis, B. astyanax, 
B. archippus). Of these the larvae of the Comma and the Red Admiral 
feed on the hop. 

The ''Hop Merchant Caterpillar" often called the ''Spring Currant 
Caterpillar," attacks currants, gooseberries, hop, elm, basswood, etc. 
Generally two broods a year. They are brownish-yellow and marked 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 77 

with black and yellow lines. On the body are numerous branched 
black tipped spines. The wings of the adult butterfly are reddish 
brown bordered with a darker brown. A silvery comma mark on 
surface of hind wings. 

The larvae of the Mourning Cloak Butterfly feed upon the leaves of 
willow, poplar, elm and dogwood and are interesting objects. There 
are two generations a year, the adults wintering over and appearing 
in early spring. The adults of the second brood appear in July. 

DANAID^ 

The monarch butterfly (Danais archippus Fab.) is a common insect 
but not of economic importance. Its larva feeds on milkweed. 

SPHlNGIDiE (HAWK MOTHS) 

The Hawk Moths are readily recognized both in the adult and the 
larval forms. The adults are strong fliers and are beautifully colored. 
They usually fly about dusk. The larvae are large and often ornamented 
with stripes, and usually have a horn near the hind end of the body. 
They feed on a great variety of foliage. Ordinarily they are kept under 
control by parasites and birds. When occasioning damage they are 
readily controlled by spraying with arsenicals and by hand-picking. 

Tomato Sphinx (Frotoparce quinque-maculata Haw.). Adult. — Ex- 
pands to 4 to 5 inches; wings ashy-grey with black markings; hind 
wings crossed by four blackish lines; abdomen with a black middle 
line with five yellow spots on each side; appears in June and July. 
Two breeds in the south. 

Eggs. — Laid singly on under surface of leaves; hatch in 4 to 8 days. 

Larva. — Three to 4 inches long; naked, dark-green with 8 V-shaped 
white lines on side; a black horn on tip of abdomen; feeds on leaves of 
tomato and tobacco. 

Pupa. — Dark-brown, about 2 inches long, sheath of proboscis 
forming a handle-like process; in the soil several inches below the 
surface. 

The Tobacco Sphinx (P. sexta) is very similar to the preceding, 

feeding on the same plants. It is more abundant in the South. The 

adult is brownish-grey instead of ashy-grey, with a distinct discal 
12 



178 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

spot on the fore wings, and six spots on sides of abdomen instead of five. 
The larva has only seven oblique markings instead of eight V-shaped 
ones. 

Plixm Sphinx {Sphinx drupiferarum Sm. and Abb.). Adult. — Ex- 
pands 3 to 4 inches; body brown, wings purplish brown; fore wings with 
a whitish stripe on costal margin, a fawn colored stripe on outer 
margin and several black streaks; hind wings with two whitish wavy 
and an outer fawn colored stripe. June. 

Eggs. — ^Laid singly on the leaves of plum; smooth, oval, Jf 5 inch 
long; pale yellowish-green. Hatch in 8 days. 

Larva. — Three and one-half inches long, apple-green, with dark- 
brown lateral stripe. On each side are seven oblique white bands. 
Feeds on plum leaves. 

Pupa. — Reddish-brown, ij^ inches long, with a short tongue case; 
in ground all winter. 

Grapevine Sphinx {Ampeloeca myron Cram.). Adult. — Expands 
2}^ inches; fore wings olive-grey with a curved oblique greenish-grey 
band, a discal point and a triangular spot. Body green. Two broods 
— June and August. 

Eggs. — -Round, 3-^0 ii^^h in diameter; yellowish-green. 

Larva. — A ''Hog Caterpillar," green with yellow dots; oblique yel- 
lowish stripes along sides; a white stripe with green margin from head 
to horn and seven pink spots along the middle; 2 inches long. Spine 
near tip of abdomen. Feeds on leaves of grape and Virginia creeper. 
Often infested with braconid parasites. 

Pupa. — -Formed in a loose cocoon of silk, spun under leaves at the 
surface of the ground. 

White-lined Sphinx (Celerio lineata Fab.). Adult. — Body and fore 
wings olive-brown; thorax with three parallel lateral white stripes; 
fore wings with a buff stripe from inner margin to apex; hind wings 
black with a reddish middle band. Probably two-brooded adults 
appearing in June and September. 

Larva. — About 33^^ inches long; color variable, yellowish-green with 
black spots or black with yellowish spots, with horn at tip of abdomen. 
Feeds on grape, apple, plum and on purslane, chickweed, etc. 

Pupa. — ^Light brown pupa formed in a smooth cavity in the ground. 

Other common Hawk Moths are: Abbott's Sphinx (Sphecodma 
ahbotti), Apple Sphinx {Sphinx gordius), Achemon Sphinx {Pholus 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 79 

achemon), Pandorus Sphinx {Pholus pandorus) on Virginia creeper, 
Twin-spotted Sphinx {Smerinthus geminatus), Thysbe Clear- wing 
(Hcemorrhagia thysbe) on Viburnum, snowberry and hawthorn. 

SATURNIINA (GIANT SILK -WORM MOTHS) 

This super-family includes the following families: BombycidcB, 
HemileucidcB, Citheroniidce and Saturniidce. The larger number of 
commonly occurring forms belong to the third and fourth families 
which may be distinguished by the presence of two anal veins in the 
former and only one in the latter. 

CERATOCAMPlDiE (CITHERONUDiE) 

This family contains such magnificent forms as the Regal Moth 
{atheroma regalis) and Imperial Moth {Basilona imperialis), and the 
economic Oak-worm moths (Anisota) and the Green-striped Maple-worm 
moth {Anisota rubicunda). 

Green-striped Maple-worm {Anisota rubicunda Fab.). — The cater- 
pillar of this moth injures maples of all kinds, box-elder and oak. 
Usually two generations in a season. 

Adult. — A pale yellow moth with a dehcate shade of pink; wing 
expanse of female iM~2 inches; her body yellow and woolly and her 
head small with thread-like antennae. Male is smaller with plumose 
antennae. 

Eggs. — Pale green turning yellowish; 3'^5 inch in diameter. Each 
female may lay 150 eggs on the under side of leaves; hatch in 8-10 
days. 

Larva. — A naked pale yellow green caterpillar, striped with dark 
green; armed back of the head on second thoracic segment with two 
long black horns, and along the sides and anal extremity with short 
black spiny projections. Two inches long in a month, when full grown. 
Four moults. Goes into ground to pupate. 

Pupa. — Dark brown, armed with little spines on margin of ab- 
dominal segments and on thorax; anal segment ends in a forked pro- 
jection. Duration two weeks. 

BOMBYCID^ 

Silk-worm Moth {Bombyx mori L.). — An Asiatic species, domestic- 
ated for its silk for many hundreds of years in Europe and Asia. Many 



l8o ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

races have been developed by selection differing in the color of the 
cocoons and larvae as well as the number of broods produced in a year. 

The main food plants are the white mulberry and the Osage orange. 
The moth is creamy white in color, and has a wing-expanse of about 
1^4: inches. 

The lack of cheap labor in America has prevented the development of 
the silk-worm industry. 

SATURNIID^E 

The members of this family are often called the Giant Silk-worms 
and include several conspicuous forms such as the To Moth (Automeris 
io), the Polyphemus Moth (Telea polyphem^tis), the Luna Moth {Tropcea 
luna), the Fromethea Moth {Callosamia promethea) and the Cecropia 
Moth (Samia cecropia). 

A. Wings bluish-green with four eye-like spots; hind wings with long tails; 
front border of fore wings purple-brown; larva, pale bluish green with a 
pearl-colored head and two yellow stripes along the back; feeding on walnut, 
hickory, etc. — Tropcea luna L. (Luna moth). 
AA. Wings not green. 

B. Wings yellowish or brownish. 

C. With four oval, window-like spots, one near centre of each wing; 
a dusky band edged with pink along margin of wings; larva light 
green with an oblique yellow line on side of each abdominal 
segment, feeding on many forest and orchard trees. — Telea 
Polyphemus Cram. (Polyphemus moth). 
CC. With eye-like spots on hind wings only; ground color of wings of 
female purplish-red; that of male bright yellow; larva yellowish- 
green, edged with white on side, with many black-tippea branched 
spines; feeding on cherry, apple, elm, oak, etc. — Automeris ioh. 
(Io Moth). 
BB. Wings brown, never yellowish. 

C. With eye-like spots near apex of fore wings, and 4 crescent- 
shaped discal spots, one near the centre of each wing, white 
surrounded by reddish and black lines; thorax red, abdomen 
red and banded with black and white lines; larva bright green 
with four prominent coral-red and two yellow tubercles on 
thoracic segments, and smaller yellow tubercles on abdominal 
segments; feeding on fruit and shade trees. — Samia cecropia 
L. (Cecropia Emperor Moth). 
CC. With eye-like spots near apex of fore wings, discal spots angular'; 
in male color blackish and discal spots faint; larva bluish-green 
with rows of black tubercles, excepting those on second and third 
thoracic segments which are coral-red, and a yellow one on eighth 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS l8l 

abdominal segment; cocoon in a folded leaf. Feeds on leaves of 
fruit and forest trees. — Callosamia promelhea (Promethea Moth). 

These handsome moths are not of much importance economically. 
Their larvae are large, conspicuous and brilliantly colored, consequently 
are readily destroyed by birds. Many also are killed by parasites. Some 
attempts have been made to manufacture the silk of the cocoons 
of some species but it has been found that the cocoon cannot be profit- 
ably unwound on account of the large number of breaks in the thread. 

ARCTIIDiE (TIGER MOTHS) 

Woolly Bears. — Several interesting and common caterpillars may 
be conveniently grouped as ''Woolly Bears," on account of their hairy 
appearance. A few common forms are here considered. 

Yellow Bear {Diacrisia virginica Fab.). — Color of caterpillar vari- 
able; frequently yellow or straw color with a black interrupted line 
along each side of back, and a black transverse line between each 
segment; hairs long and yellow; uneven in length and not gathered 
into pencils. Cocoon is light and composed of hairs in which pupa 
passes the winter. Moth snowy- white; wings marked with a few 
black dots; three rows of black spots on abdomen. 

Hedge-hog Caterpillar {Isia isahella Sm. and A.). — An ''evenly 
clipped furry caterpillar, reddish-brown in the middle and black at 
either end." Passes winter as larva. Moth (Isabella Tiger Moth) 
has wings and body orange-buff, hind wings tinted with rose. Body 
with 3 rows of black dots. 

Salt Marsh Caterpilar (Estigmene acrcea Drury). — Body and head 
blackish with pale longitudinal stripes on the back; hair is dark brown; 
passes winter as pupa. Abdomen of moth orange; both wings white 
in female, hind wings orange in male; both marked with black dots. 
Six rows of black spots on abdomen, one on back, one on venter, and 
two on each side. 

Fall Web Worm (Hyphantria textor Harris). — Conspicuous by their 
webs or nests in autumn on orchard, shade and forest trees (Fig. 122). 

Adult. — Quite variable in markings; pure white, sometimes spotted 
with black; expands i J^ inches; femur of forelegs orange and legs and 
feet with touches of black. 

Eggs. — ^I aid in a flat cluster of about 400 on under side of leaf; 
golden-yellow, globular and pitted; hatch in about 10 days. 



l82 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Larva.— V^hcn young is pale yellow with two rows of black marks 
along the body, head black; hairs sparse; and when full grown is 
covered witli long whitish hairs arising from black and yellow warts; 
I inch long; spins webs and feeds within them; about five moults. 

Pupa.—Cocoon of silken web interwoven with hairs; pupa dark 
brown. Winter passed as j)upa. 




Fig. 122. — Fall web worm ^Hyphantria textor): a and h, caterpillars; c, pupa; d, 
adult moth. {After Howard, U. S. Bur. lint.) 

Life-history. — Hibernates as a pupa under rubbish, in crevices 
under walls, etc. Moths emerge in June; eggs hatch in about lo days 
and caterpillars mature in August and September. Two broods in 
some localities. 

Parasites. — Telenomus bifid us Riley, Meteor us hyphantricB Riley, 
Apanteles hyphantrice Riley, Limneria pall i pes Pro v., Tachina sp. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 83 

Control.' — Prune off and burn the webs ; spray with arsenical ; collect 
and destroy the cocoons. 

Hickory Tiger Moth {Halisidota caryce Harris). — (Consult Bull. 598, 
U. S. Dep. Ag.) Adult. — A yellow and brown moth, 2 inches wing 
expanse; fore wings long, narrow and pointed, ochre-yellow with five 
irregular transverse incomplete rows of spots. June- July. One brood 
a year. Distributed over the Northeastern States and the Eastern 
provinces of Canada. 

Eggs. — Blue and nearly globular a brown ring on upper surface; laid 
in patches of 100 or more on under side of leaf in early summer. 
Duration 15-16 days. 

Larva. — One and one-half inches long; gregarious at first; feeds 
on the leaves of hickory, butternut, apple and other trees; covered with 
dense and spreading tufts of white hairs, has a row of 8 black tufts on 
the back and two long slender black pencils on the fourth and tenth 
segments; head, feet and under surface of body black; upper surface of 
body white with black dots. Eight to nine feeding stages, and about 
a week as larva in the cocoon. Larvae feed gregariously during the 
first four stages. Duration 70-90 days. 

Pupa. — Cocoon greyish, oval, hairy, ^ inch long, found under boards 
and rubbish on the ground; pupa reddish-brown, caudal end with a 
transverse row of spines. 

Checkered Tiger Moth {Halisidota tessellaris Sm. and A.). — ^Like 
preceding species but tufts are yellow; two orange colored pencils on 
second and third segments; two white pencils on sides of third and 
eleventh segments. 

Spotted Halisidota (//. maculata Harris). — ^Larva with yellow tufts 
in the middle and black tufts at either end, and a row of black spots 
down the centre. Occurs on apple, maple, birch, alder, poplar, oak, 
etc. Cocoon is yellowish, oval and hairy. 

Parasites of Cocoons. — Scamhus pedalis, Theronia melanocephala, 
Amblyteles malacus. 

AGARISTIDiE (WOOD MOTHS) 

Eight-Spotted Forester (Alypia octomaculata Fab.). — A frequent 
feeder on the leaves of wild and cultivated grapes, and Virginia creeper 
in eastern U. S. and Canada, sometimes doing considerable injury. 



184 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Adult. — General color a deep velvety blue black. Fore wings with 
two large circular pale yellow spots, and hind wings with two smaller 
white spots. Wing expanse ij^ inches. May-July. Single brooded. 

Larva. — One and two-fifth inches long; bluish-brown; head and cervi- 
cal shield bright orange with black spots. Each segment crossed with 
black, white and orange bands; eleventh segment with a prominent 
hump; legs black; base of prolegs orange. Full grown in early August. 

Pupa. — A chrysalis within a slight cocoon just below the surface of 
the ground. Hibernates. 

Parasites. — Wifit hernia 4-pustulata Fab. — A tachinid. 

Control. — Spray the larvae with arsenate of lead or pyrethrum. 

NOCTUID^ (OWLET OR MILLER MOTHS) 

According to their manner of feeding on plants the larvae of Noctuids 
may be classified roughly into: (a) Cutworms proper, feeding on roots 



Fig. 123. — Mouth parts of a caterpillar, the striped cutworm (Euxoa tessellata) : 
Ant., antennae; 01., clypeus; Lb., labium; Md., mandible; Mp., maxillary palpus; 
Lbr., labrum; Mx., maxilla; S., spinneret. 

of grasses and cutting off young plants at surface, (b) Army-worms, 
eating the leaves of cereal and other crops, (c) Climbing cutworms, 
feeding on buds of fruit trees, (d) Loopers and caterpillars, feeding 
on leaves of turnip, cabbage, celery and other plants, (e) Ear-worms, 
feeding on kernels of corn in the field. (/) Stalk-borers, feeding in 
tunnels made in stems, (g) Green Fruit-worms, feeding on the surface 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 85 

of apple, etc. {h) Dagger Cater pillars j feeding on the leaves of many 
shrubs and trees, {i) Underwing Moths, some feeding on the leaves 
of trees (Fig. 123). 

{a) Cutworms Proper 

(Consult Bull. 95, 111. Agric. Exp. Station, 1904; Bull. 10, Div. Ent. Can., 1912) 

There are many species of cutworms that feed upon economic 
plants. They are mostly ''plump, soft-bodied, cylindrical caterpillars, 
dirty greyish or whitish, and variously spotted and striped" (Forbes). 
They are the larval stages of species of Noctuid moths, commonly 
termed "millers," and are night feeders. ''They are essentially grass 
and clover insects, and by far the greater part of them are bred in 
pastures and meadows." 

Life-history. — The majority of the species hibernate as partly 
grown larvae, and enter the ground to pupate m late June and early 
July. The adults — usually greyish nocturnal moths — -emerge in 
early August and lay their eggs in grass lands. Each moth may lay 
from 200 to 500 eggs, either in masses or singly. The larvae that 
hatch from these eggs feed on the roots of grasses until winter sets 
in. Feeding is resumed m the spring, when most serious injury is done, 
until their larvae pupate in June-July. 

Control of Cutworms. — Plow grass land in midsummer or early fall 
to prevent the female moths from egg-laying; late fall plowing of grass 
lands will destroy many of the hibernating cutworms; allow poultry 
and hogs upon cutworm land; use poison bait: bran 20 lb., molasses 
I qt., paris green or white arsenic 3^^ lb., water 23-^-3 gals. 

Natural Enemies. — Calosoma calidum, Ammophila luctuosa, Win- 
themia 4-pustulata. 

The following species are most commonly met with: 

Spotted Cutworm (Agrotis c-nigrum Linn.). — General color grey to 
brownish; a row of triangular black spots along each side of back; a 
pale line down the middle of back, a conspicuous whitish-yellowish 
stigmatal band, and a pale intermediate line; head and shield yellowish- 
brown; front feet pale brown and shiny, i3-^ inches long. Active in 
April and May in vegetable gardens (Fig. 124). 

W-marked Cutworm (Agrotis unicolor Wlk.). — General color pale 
brown; four rows of dark spots and often also with lighter lines along 
the back, resembling the letter W; sides of W-marks bordered with 



1 86 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



pale yellow; head pale brown with a wide black dash on each side; 
shield dark brown. Active in April and May in gardens and orchards 
(Fig. 125). 

Greasy Cutworm {Agrotis ypsilon Rott.).— General color dark greasy 
grey to black above and greenish-yellow below; a pale yellow line 
down centre of back, and three others on each side; tubercles black and 
shiny; head and shield dark brown; ij^ inches long. Active in May 
and early June on corn and garden vegetables (Fig. 125). 

Variegated Cutworm (Lycophotia margaritosa Haw.). — One and 
three-fourth inches long; color variable from grey to brown; body 
mottled with dark brown; a yellowish band along each side; a series of 




Fig. 124. — a. Spotted Cutworm, dorsal aspect; h, Spotted Cutworm, lateral 
aspect; c. White Cutworm; d. Dingy Cutworm; e, Black Army Cutworm, dorsal 
aspect; /, Black Army Cutworm, lateral aspect. {After Gibson, Bui. 10, Ent. Br. Can.) 

yellow dots or spots along the middle of back; two stripes of velvety 
black blotches bordered with orange and black curved dashes between 
the lateral yellow band and the middle of the back; head reddish-yellow 
and marked with black bands resembling slightly the letter H. Prac- 
tically an omnivorous feeder, its food plants including cereal root, 
forage, vegetable flowers and orchard trees. Active in May and early 
June in gardens. The eggs are laid in irregular masses upon the stems 
of plants; they are small, white, hemispherical and ribbed. The pupae 
are reddish-brown and about % inch long. 

Dark-sided Cutworm {Euxoa messoria Harris). — General color 
greyish; sides darker than rest of body; a dark line down middle of 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 87 

back; tubercles blackish, each with a single hair; head and shield shiny 
and grey. Active in May and June on fruits and garden vegetables. 
Sometimes called the ''onion cutworm." 

Common Striped Cutworm (Euxoa tessellata Harris) . — This cutworm 
is 1 3^ inches long, grey, with a pale median dorsal line and three pale 
lines on each side. It feeds on most vegetable crops. One brood a 
year; passes the winter as half-grown larva, and is most destructive 
in June. The moths appear in July and August. 

Red-backed Cutworm {Euxoa ochrogaster Gn.). — With a broad 
reddish stripe down the back; head and shield yellowish-brown, the 




Fig. 125. — a. Red-backed Cutworm, dorsal aspect; h. Red-backed Cutworm, 
lateral aspect; c. Greasy Cutworm, dorsal aspect; d. Greasy Cutworm, lateral aspect; 
e, W-marked Cutworm, dorsal aspect; /, W-marked Cutworm, lateral aspect. 
{After Gibson, Ent. Br. Can.) 



former with two distinct black marks toward the centre. Along 
middle of back a pale stripe, and at each side a dark stripe borders the 
red of the back. Tubercles small and dark, each bearing a single 
hair. Moth variable in color and markings. Ground color of wings 
pale yellow to dark red; fore wings crossed by four or five irregular 
lines and marked with black; body grey or dull brown; active in May, 
June and July on corn (Fig. 125). 

Army Cutworm {ChorizagroHs auxiliaris Grote). (Consult Bull. 13, 
Entom. Branch, Ottawa.) Three varieties: C. auxiliaris y C. intra- 



i88 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



ferens, and C agrestis are recognized as destructive to grain, alfalfa, 
beets and flax in the West in Montana and Alberta. The larvae begin 
to mature about the middle of May but pupation m earthen cells does 
not occur until the middle of June. The moths fly from June 15th- 
Sept. 30th and the eggs are laid from August 24th-October 15th in 
the soil in weedy summer-fallows. 

Porosagrotis delorata Sm. is injurious to wheat in June. In British 
Columbia Euxoa excellens Grote injures market gardens, and Neuria 
procincta Grote injures farm crops (Fig. 127). 

Glassy Cutworm {Sidemia devastator Brace). — Translucent whitish, 
tinged with bluish-green and without spots; tubercles brown, each with 
a single hair; head reddish-brown; neckshield brownish. Active in 




Fig. 126. — a. Moth of Glassy Cutworm {Sidemia devastator); b, larva. (After 

Gibson, Bui. lo, Ent. Br. Can.) 

May and early June on hay and garden vegetables. Diflicult to 
kill by poison bait on account of its underground feeding habit 
(Fig. 126). 

Yellow-headed Cutworm {Septis arctica Bdv.). — Pale smoky grey, 
with head and neck shield tawny-yellow; without spots, ij^ inches long. 
Active in July on cereal crops and vegetables (Fig. 127). 

Bronze Cutworm (Nephelodes emmedonia Gn.).— Large, 1% inches 
long, with alternate stripes of olive-bronze and yellowish, a pale stripe 
along the middle of the back, and two others on each side. Active 
in grass lands in April and May. 

Zebra Caterpillar (Ceramica picta Harris). — "Velvety black on the 
back; beautifully ornamented with two golden-yellow stripes on each 
side of the body, which are connected by narrow lines of the same color; 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 89 

the head and feet reddish-brown" (Fletcher). Two broods, on cab- 
bages and turnips (Fig. 128). 




Fig. 127. — a, Moth of Yellow-headed Cutworm {Septis arctica); b, moth of Clover 
Cutworm {Scotogramma trifolii) ; c, moth of Pale Western Cutworm {Porosagrotis 
orthogonia); d, moth of Dingy Cutworm (Felia ducens). {After Gibson, Bui, 10, Ent. 
Br. Can.) 




Fig. 128. — The zebra caterpillar and moth {Ceramica picta). 

Clover Cutworm {Scotogramma trifolii Esp.). — Color varying from 
green to dark; a pale yellowish line along middle of back, a pinkish 
band bordered with white or pale yellow along each side, and between 



I go ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

these a broken yellow stripe; head pale yellow or green with white 
mottlings; under side greenish grey with spots and streaks. Damages 
peas, clover, root crops, lettuce, etc. August (Fig. 125). 

(b) Army Worms 

The Army Worm [Cirphis unipuncta Haw.). — (Consult Farmers' 
Bull. 731, U. S. Dep. Agr.; Bull. 9, Ent. Br., Dep. Agric, Can.) 
Army worms appear to be more abundant in a wet spring or summer 
following a dry season. Injurious in 1895-1896 and in 1914. Prob- 
ably a native of North America (Fig. 129). 

Adult. — A dingy yellowish-brown moth with a white spot on the 
centre of each front wing; wing expanse i3^^ inches, a row of small 
black spots near outer margins of wings with dark streaks. 

Eggs. — Minute white eggs laid in bead-like strings on grass leaves 
in the folded blades or under the leaf-sheaths. Hatch in 8-10 days. 

Larva. — A dark-colored cutworm, i J^ inches long; body striped with 
black and yellow lines; a narrow white stripe or line along middle of 
greenish-black back; lower stripe dark greenish-yellow; next, just above 
the spiracles, black; the lowest, just below the spiracles, light greenish- 
yellow, edged with white. Head greenish-brown with coarse black 
mottlings and with two curved blackish-brown bars; under surface 
greenish mottled with brown; looping gait until after second moult; 
duration 20-30 days. Parasitized by Winthemia 4-pustulata, A pan- 
teles militaris, Ichneumon canadensis, I. lactus, I. jucundus and others; 
by a bacterial disease; and preyed upon by Calosoma. 

Pupa. — A brown chrysahs in the ground; duration 12-15 days. 

Life-history. — There are two broods of the Army Worm moth each 
season. The insects usually pass the winter as half grown caterpillars. 
In the spring these mature and change to pupse, the moths appearing 
early in June. The May brood of caterpillars seldom does much harm. 
The female moths lay their eggs (about 700) on grass leaves from 
which caterpillars hatch in about 10 days. The caterpillars of this 
brood do most injury. The worms usually feed at night, consequently 
whole fields may be ruined before they are discovered. This July 
brood of caterpillars reaches maturity in about 25 days, and changes 
to pupae in the ground, the moths appearing again in about 2 weeks. 
These lay eggs for a brood of worms which appear in September, but 
are seldom injurious. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS IQI 




Pig. 129. — Stages and work of the true army worm {Cirphis unipuncta) and 
some of its insect enemies: a, parent or moth; h, full-grown larva; c, eggs; d, pupa 
in soil; e, parasitic fly, Winthemia quadripustulata, laying its eggs on an army worm; 
/, a ground beetle, Calosoma calidum, preying upon an army worm, and, at right, 
Calosoma larva emerging from burrow; g, a digger wasp, Sphex sp., carrying an army 
worm to its burrow; h, Enicospilus purgatus, a wasplike parasite of the army worm, 
natural size. (U. S. Bur. Ent.) 



192 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Control. — Plow the fields in late fall; plow three or four furrows 
in front of the advancing army and kill the woims that fall into the 
furrows; poison a narrow strip on the threatened side of field with 
Paris green or the poisoned bran mash. 

Black Army Cutworm {A grot is fennica Tausch). — General color 
brown; a series of velvety black marks along middle of back; a white 
line along each side, and a spiracular white band, reddish-brown 
in the centre; head yellowish-red; shield black; feet pale brown. 
May and early June. Attacks peas, clover, trees and some garden 
vegetables (Fig. 125). 

Fall Army Worm {Laphygma frngiperda S. and A.). — (Consult 
Farmers' Bull. 752, U. S. Dept. Agr.) Injurious mainly in the 
South but periodically appearing in the North. Feeds on grasses and 
cereal crops, cotton, alfalfa, cowpeas and other crops. 

Adult. — Wing expanse i)^ inches; front wings dark grey, mottled, 
and with a light grey spot near tips; hind wings white, with a pearly 
lustre, and edged with a brown line. Body ash grey. 

Eggs. — ^Light grey and minutely ribbed. Laid in clusters of 50- 
200 on grass blades. Hatch in 2-4 days in South, but as long as 10 
days in the North. 

Larva. — Newly hatched larvae with jet-black heads and white bodies. 
Full grown in 2 to 3 weeks; then striped, nearly naked and about ij^ 
inches long. Front of head marked with an invertied Y. Assumes the 
Army Worm habit when food becomes scarce. 

Pupa. — Golden-reddish at first but black later, living in an under- 
ground cell. Duration 10 to 14 days. 

In the Gulf States there are 5 to 6 broods annually, but in the north- 
ern probably not more than one. 

{c) Climbing Cutworms 

(See Bull. 104, Cornell Agr. Exp. Stn.^ 1895; Bull. 10, Ent. Br. Dept. 

Agr., Can.) 

Some species of cutworms are known to have a climbing habit, 
ascending not only fruit trees but also currants, gooseberries, tomatoes 
etc., to feed upon the leaves and fruit. Among these are: 

White Cutworm {Lycophotia scandens Riley). — One and three- 
fourths inches long, yellowish-grey with whitish spots; spiracles black. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 93 

Spotted-legged Cutworm {Porosagrotis vetusta Walk.). — One and 
one-half inches long; black spots on legs; feeding on peach buds. 

Dingy Cutworm (Feltia ducens Walk.). — Common; with wide buff- 
grey dorsal stripe; head and thoracic and anal shields dark brown. 
Feeds on garden crops (Fig. 124). 



{d) Noctuid Loopers 

Cabbage Looper (Aulographa brassiccB Riley) . — (Consult Bull. 33, 
Div. Ent., U. S. Dep. Ag., 1902, pp. 60-69.) Larva feeds on cab- 
bage and related plants (Fig. 130). 




Fig. 130. — Cabbage looper (Aulographa hrassicce). Showing a, adult; h, larva and 
pupa. Natural size. {After Chittenden, U. S. Bur. Ent.) 

Adult. — A brownish-grey "miller" moth; front wings transversely 
mottled with grey, white and black, and bearing a small silver- 
white spot on inner half; expanding ij^-^ inches; borders of wings 
scalloped. 

Egg. — Silvery-white or pale green, semi-globular, with radiating 
vertical ribs. 

Larva. — A pale green translucent looping caterpillar, obscurely 
marked longitudinally; prolegs absent from 6th and 7th segments; 
2 to 4 weeks. 

13 



194 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Pupa. — Invested in a white gauzy silken cocoon spun on any con- 
venient object; one to three weeks. Winters as a chrysaHs. 

Life-history. — Probably two broods a year in Canada and north- 
ern States. 

Celery Looper {Autographa simplex Guen.). — (Consult Bull, t^t,, 
Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Ag.) Slightly larger than the preceding 
species. 

Adult. — A "miller" moth with fore wings marked with grey and 
seal brown, silver mark hooked; wings expanded 2 inches; borders not 
scalloped. 

£g^. —Milky- white, flattened, globular; upper half grooved verti- 
cally. 

Larva. — A pale yellowish-green looping caterpillar; markings 
similar to those on A. brassicce; supra-spiracular spots black. 

Pupa. — Resembles that of A. brassicce.- — (Consult Bull. $$, Div. 
Ent., U. S. Dept. Ag.). 

Alfalfa Looper {Autographa calif ornica Speyer) . — Widely distributed 
over Western North America from Alaska and the Yukon south through 
B. C, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba to California, Nevada, Utah, 
Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana. Larvae destructive to the leaves and 
blossoms of alfalfa, clover, garden peas, cabbage, etc. 

Adult. — A brownish-grey moth, i]y^ inches wing expanse; fore wings 
light bluish-grey with rose and light markings— one shaped like the 
letter Gamma near the middle; hind wings dull brown. An active 
flier. 

Eggs. — Hemispherical, rounded at base, apex with rounded depres- 
sions; finely creased vertically; pale yellow. Duration 5-7 days. 
Probably laid on the leaves. 

Larva. — One and one-fourth inches long, dark green, cylindrical 
tapering toward the head; subdorsal line fine and wavy; two other lines 
in this area and a wide whitish stigmatal band. Tubercles white, setae 
white. Spiracles pale, black rimmed. Thoracic feet black, shiny. 
Three pairs of pro-legs on segments 9, 10, 13. 

Pupa. — Dark brown, % inch long. The cocoon is a thinly woven 
web of whitish silk spun among the leaves. Duration 10-14 days. 
Hibernates as pupa and adult. Probably two broods in B. C. and 
Washington. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 95 

Green Clover Worm {Plathypena scabra Fab.) (Consult Farmers' 
Bull. 982, U. S. Dept. Agric). A pest of alfalfa and the leguminous 
crops of eastern U. S. and southern Canada. 

Adult. — Variegated dark brown to black; wing expanse ij-^ inches, 
2-4 generations a season. Hibernates. 

Eggs. — Circular, slightly flattened; green; about the size of a pin 
head. Female lays between 200-600 eggs in a few days singly on 
the underside of the leaf. Hatch in about four days. 

Larva. — Green, with a narrow white stripe and second fainter 
white line on each side; i^i inches long; only four pairs of pro-legs; 
5 moults; restless and drops off the plant when disturbed. Mature 
in about 4 weeks. 

Pupa. — Yellow-brown or black, formed in a loose oval base or 
cocoon of debris webbed together; duration about 8 days. Some- 
times hibernates. 

Control. — Cut the crops when the caterpillars are most abundant; 
adopt clean culture; use hopperdozer in bad outbreaks. 

Hop Vine Looper or Snout Moth (HypenahumuliUsirns). — This 
noctuid sometimes does serious injury to the leaves of hop. Two 
broods a year. 

Adult. — A dark brown moth, i J^ inches wing expanse, with irregular 
and variable transverse markings on fore wings; palpi long, flattened, 
and projecting horizontally like a snout. July and August-September; 
hibernates. 

Eggs. — Pale green; laid on the under side of the leaves. 

Larva. — A semi-looper, lacking the first pair of prolegs; green; 
with two longitudinal white lines along the back, a dark green line 
between and an indistinct whitish line on each side; head green spotted 
with black piliferous dots. Spins a thin silken cocoon before pupating. 

Pupa. — Formed in the ground, in crevices in the poles, and in the 
leaves. Duration about 10 days. 

Control. — Spray or dust vines with arsenate of lead. 

(e) Com Ear Worm (Heliothis obsoleta Fab.) 

Adult. — An ochre-yellow moth with blackish markings, expand- 
ing about ij^ inches. 

Eggs. — Small yellow circular flattened disks, prettily corrugated 
by ridges radiating from the centre. 



196 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Larva. — Variable in color, pale green or brownish caterpillar, ij^ 
inches long, often dark striped; head amber-yellow; legs black. 

Pupa. — In a small oval cell in the ground. 

Life-history. — In Canada there is one brood, perhaps two in some 
southern localities. The insect hibernates as a pupa. The moth 
emerges the following July, when eggs are laid on the silk of the ears. 
The young caterpillars feed upon the young kernels until fully de- 
veloped, when they descend to the ground and transform to pupae in 
small oval cells. Known in the South as the Cotton Boll Worm. 

(/) Stalk Borers 

Several species of Stalk Borers are injurious to various cultivated 
plants, such as hop vines, columbines, corn, potatoes, tomatoes, rasp- 
berries, asters, dahlias, and also to burdocks. The caterpillar lives 
inside the stem and makes a burrow by devouring the interior. As 
a result the plant often withers and dies. Before maturity it works 
its way down to the root where it changes to a pupa. The Stalk 
Borers have been placed in the genersiGortyna, Hydroecia snidPapaipema. 
Gortyna immanis occurs in hop vines; Papaipema purpurifascia in 
columbine; P. nitela in corn, dahlia, aster, potatoes, etc; P. cata- 
phrada in burdock; Gortyna micacea in rhubarb, corn, potatoes, etc. 

Garden Stalk Borer {Papaipema nitela Guen.). — This borer tunnels 
the stalks of potatoes, tomatoes, and other garden crops, and many 
weeds. Sometimes feeds on strawberry. One brood a year. 

Adult. — A mouse-colored noctuid moth, with outer third of fore 
wings paler and bordered within by a whitish cross-line. Late August. 

Eggs. — Grey, circular, with radiating ridge, J:5o inch in diameter; 
hatch in late May or early June. 

■ Larva. — Mines in the leaf at first, then enters the stalk and tunnels 
it. Full grown about August; i inch long, purplish to light brown 
and marked with white stripes except on first four segments of ab- 
domen; head, neck-shield and anal-shield light reddish-yellow. 

Pupa. — Brown, formed in lower part of stalk. Duration about 
2 weeks. 

Control. — Clean cultivation; removal and burning of old stalks. 

Potato Stalk Borer {Gortyna micaceaEsp.).- — A European insect, and 
a general feeder. Reported on rhubarb, corn, potatoes in N. S. and 
N. B. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 97 

Adult. — Ground color of fore wings light brown tinged with red, 
with a transverse darker median band. Hind wings dingy grey with 
a transverse light brown line. Aug.-Sept. 

Eggs. — Circular, finely ribbed and sculptured; slightly pinkish; 
laid on stems of couch grass. 

Larva. — One and three-fifth inches long; head chestnut-brown; 
tubercles pale brown with a stiff black bristle; spiracles shiny black; 
body color greyish tinged with pink. 

Pupa. — Brown, ^^ inch long. Duration about 3 weeks. 

(g) Green Fruit Worms (Graptolitha spp.) 

G. antennata Walker, G. laticinerea Grote, G. cinerosa, G. bethunei 
G. and R. and other species sometimes injure leaves and fruit of apple 
and forest trees in late May and early June. 

Ash-Gray Pinion {Graptolitha antennata Walk.). Adult. — Dull 
ashy-grey; fore wings with darker grey or greyish-brown markings. 
April and September; hibernates. 

Eggs. — Yellow, globular, ridged; laid singly on bark of smaller 
branches in early spring. 

Larva. — Light yellowish or apple-green naked caterpillar, i-i^^i 
inches long, with a cream-colored stripe along the middle of the back, 
a similar but wider stripe along each side, and mottled markings or 
stripes above the lateral stripes. Head glossy green, with white 
mottlings; legs whitish, prolegs greyish. May- June. 

Pupa. — Dark brown; often within a thin silken cocoon in an earthen 
cell in the ground. Duration 3 months, sometimes over winter. 

Control. — Spray with dilute lime-sulphur and lead arsenate before 
the blossoms open. 

Parasites. — Meteorus hyphantrice and Mesochorus agilis. 

Bethune*s Green Fruit Worm (Graptolitha bethunei G. and R.). — 
This fruit worm is a pest in many parts, and has been reported as most 
destructive in the Annapolis Valley, Nova Scotia. The color of the 
moth is quite variable, some moths being nearly white with darker 
markings, while others are much darker. 

Another species of Green Fruit Worm, Orthosia hibisci Guen., 
occurs at Geneva, N. Y. 

(//) Dagger Moths 

The larvae of several species of Dagger Moths may be found feeding 
on the leaves of shrubs and trees. The more common forms are the 



1 98 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

American Dagger Moth, the Raspberry Dagger Moth {A. impressa Walk.), 
the Smeared Dagger Moth {A. ohlinita S. and A.), the Grey Dagger 
Moth {A. populi Riley), and the Darkish Dagger Moth {A. morula 
Grote). They may be distinguished from the arctiid woolly-bears by 
the mode of distribution of the hairs. The hairs of the latter arise 
from tubercles in clusters, while they are scattered over the surface 
of the body in the Dagger-larvae. 

American Dagger Moth {Acronycta americana Harris). Adult. 
— Fore wings light grey with faint dark lines and dagger-like 
markings. Hind wings smaller, dark brown. Body similar in color 
to hind wings. 

Larva. — Two and one-half inches long when full grown; thickly 
covered with short pale yellow hairs, with a pair of long black hair 
pencils on first and third abdominal segments and a single one on the 
eighth; head black; body greenish- white above with a subdorsal and 
stigmatal black line; lower surface black. Common in September on 
elm, maple, oak, hickory, ash, poplar, alder and other trees. 

(i) Underwing Moths 

The Catocalas or Uhderwings are interesting Noctuids, the adult 
moths showing protective resemblance to the bark of trees. The larvae of 
some of the species at least feed on the leaves of trees, C. ultronia, 
C. grynea, on apple, plum, cherry; and C. relicta, C. car a, and C. 
concumhens on poplar, willow and birch, 

NOTODONTIDiE (PROMINENTS) 

Hand-maid Moths {Datana Spp.). — Several species of Datana occur 
on orchard and forest trees. 

Yellow-necked Caterpillar (Datana ministra Drury). — The larvae 
are gregarious, and are often injurious to the leaves of apple in late 
summer. 

Adult. — A russet-brown moth nearly 2 inches expanse; head and 
large spot on the thorax chestnut brown; fore wings cinnamon brown 
crossed by 3-5 darker brown lines; hind wings pale yellow. Early 
summer, June- July. One brood a year. 

Eggs. — In flat clusters of 70-100 on surface of leaf; white and 
round. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 1 99 

Larva. — Two inches long; head large and black; cervical shield dull 
orange; back and sides striped alternately with black and yellow lines; 
body thinly clothed with soft white hairs. Larvse occur in clusters and 
at rest their bodies assume a characteristic bow-form. When young 
they are chestnut brown. At maturity they descend to the ground 
and burrow to a depth of 3 inches. Larval stage 5-6 weeks. 

Pupa. — A naked brown object in the ground nearly an inch long. 

Control. — Hand-pick the clusters of caterpillars; spray the cater- 
pillars with an arsenical. 

Walnut Caterpillar (Datana integerrima G. and R.) is often destruc- 
tive on walnut, butternut, and hickory, and also on oak, beach, apple, 
and hawthorn. 

Adult. — A buff-brown moth with darker bands across the fore 
wings; i%-2 inches wing expanse. July-August. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in clusters of 100 or more on underside of leaves. 

LarvcB. — Caterpillars feed in clusters devouring the leaves; when 
nearing maturity they separate. Body black, with a loose covering 
of soft whitish hairs 2 inches long; when at rest they assume a bow-form. 
At moulting times they gather in large numbers on the trunks and 
larger branches. When mature they descend and enter the earth. 

Pupa.^A dark brown chrysalis; hibernates in this stage. 

Control. — Spray caterpillars with arsenical; collect the clusters of 
caterpillars. 

Red-humped Apple Caterpillar (Schizura concinna Sm. and Ab.). 
Adult. — Moth expanding ij^ inches; body light brown, thorax dark 
brown; fore wings greyish on outer margin and dark brown on 
inner, with a brown dot near middle, a spot near each angle and 
several longitudinal streaks along posterior margin. Hind wings 
brownish. June and July. One brood in the North. 

Eggs. — White, round, slightly flattened deposited in a cluster of 
40-100 on the under side of leaf in July. 

LarvcB. — Body striped with yellow, black and white lines; a double 
row of black spines on back; head coral-red; a red hump on fourth seg- 
ment. Full-grown in late summer and fall, when they spin loose silken 
cocoons, mixed with rubbish, on the ground. Gregarious, attacking 
apple, pear, plum, cherry, and blackberry and some forest trees. 

Pupa. — Formed in fall and pass the winter and early spring in or on 
the ground. 



200 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Control. — Spray with arsenate of lead; hand-pick or burn caterpillars 
with rag torch. 

LYMANTRHDiE (TUSSOCK MOTHS) 

G3rpsy Moth (Porthetria dispar Linn.). — A European insect intro- 
duced into the U. S. (Mass.) about 1869, now found in all the New 
England States. The larva feeds on a very large variety of plants — • 
forest, orchard and shade trees, especially oak, willow and apple, 
shrubs and even herbaceous plants. Conifers immune (Fig. 131). 

Adult. — Male brownish-yellow, slender, with feathered antennae; 
fore wings marked with zigzag darker lines; wing expanse ij^ inches; 
an active flier. Female white with zigzag dark lines and with slender 
black antennae; body so heavy as to prevent flight. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in July-August in irregular oval spongy masses of 
400-500 in crevices and on convenient objects, and covered with tan 
colored hairs; hatching about May ist following. 

Larva. — A dark brown hairy caterpillar 2-3 inches long; 2 rows of 
red spots and 2 rows of blue spots along the back with a dim yellowish 
stripe between; body clothed with long black hairs. Full grown about 
July I St. 

Pupa. — ^Cocoon of silk loosely formed among the leaves; pupa con- 
ical and dark brown; i inch long. Duration 7-17 days. 

Parasites. — The following have been introduced: Anastatus bifas- 
ciatus and Schedius kuvance — chalcid egg parasites; Compsilura con- 
cinnata and Blepharipa scutellata on the caterpillar; Monodontomerus 
cereus, a chalcid pupa parasite; and Calosoma sycophanta. 

Control. — ^Treat the egg clusters with creosote; band the trees with 
burlap, etc. and spray; parasites. 

Brown Tail Moth {Euproctis chrysorrhcea Linn.). — ^Larva destruc- 
tive to orchard, shade and forest trees. Conifers immune. Probably 
introduced from Holland to Mass. about 1893 (Fig. 132). 

Adult. — A white moth, except that the abdomen is tinged with 
brown and tipped with a tuft of brown hairs, most conspicuous in the 
female. Both sexes are strong fliers and active at night in July. 

Eggs. — In brownish clusters of 150-300 on the leaves on the tips of 
the branches. Usually brown hairs are mixed with the egg mass. 
Eggs hatched by August 15th. 




Pig 131. -Different stages uf the yipsy moth (Porthetria dispar) Egg mass 
on center of twig; female moth ovipositing just below; female moth, Japanese 
variety, lower left; male moth immediately above; female moth immediately above; 
male moth with wings folded in upper left; male chrysalis at right of this; temale 
chrysahs again at right; larva at center. All slightly reduced. (After HoivaM and 
Fiske.) 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 201 




Pig. 132. — Different stages of the brown-tail moth. Winter nest at upper 
left; male and female adults at lower right; another winter nest at upper right; 
male and female chrysalides above, male at left; full-grown larva in centre, somewhat 
reduced; young larvae at its left; egg-mass, the eggs hatching at lower left; female 
ovipositing on leaf; egg-mass also on same leaf. (After Howard and Fiske.) 



202 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Larva. — Dark brown caterpillar ij^^ inches long with a sprinkling of 
orange; body covered with fine reddish-brown hairs; a row of conspicu- 
ous white hairs along each side; bright red tubercles on top of sixth and 
seventh abdominal segments. Full grown in June. Winter is spent as 
black quarter-grown larvae in colonies or nests of leaves bound firmly 
together by a silken web. Barbed hairs irritating to human skin. 

Pupa. — ^Loose cocoon attached to leaf; pupa brown, about ^ inch 
long. Duration about 20 days. 

Parasites. — Imported forms are: Pteromalus egregius, Apanteles 
lacteicolor, Meteorus versicolor, Zygohothria nidicola, Compsilura con- 
cinnata, Pales favida, Monodontomertis cereus; Calosoma sycophanta. 

Control. — Cut off and burn the winter nests before the caterpillars 
emerge in April; poison the caterpillars with lead arsenate before the 
middle of June; parasites. 

White-marked Tussock Moth {Hemerocampa leucostigma Sm. and 
Ab.). — A native insect whose larva is frequently injurious to fruit trees 
and shade trees. 

Adult. — Male winged and ashen-grey in color; fore wings crossed 
by wavy bands of a darker shade, with a minute white crescent near 
outer hind angle, a small black spot near tip of outer edge and an oblique 
blackish stripe beyond it. Antennas broad and feather-like. Females 
wingless with slender antennae, and of a light grey color. July- 
August. 

Eggs. — ^ White and nearly globular; 300-500 arranged in a three or 
four-layered mass and covered with a frothy substance. Hatch in 
May and June. 

Larva. — One and one-fourth to one and one-half inches long, bright 
yellow; head and two small protuberances on hinder portion of back 
bright coral red; four creamy tufts on back; two black plumes at front 
and one at the rear; black and dusky yellow stripes along the back 
and sides. 

Pupa. — Cocoons made of silk and hairs; pupa brownish, the male 
smaller than the female; 10-15 days duration. 

Life-history. — Eggs are laid in July and August and hatch in late 
May and early June; caterpillars full grown in a month; pupal stage 
lasts about 2 weeks, and the adults emerge in July and August to 
lay their egg-masses. But one brood in Canada and Northern United 
States. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 203 

Enemies. — Pimpla inquisitor, Chalcis ovata, Tachina mella; certain 
birds; red ants; certain dermestid beetles; certain fungi and bacteria. 

Control. — See under Antique Tussock Moth. 

Antique or Rusty Tussock Moth (Notolophus antiqua Linn.). — 
A European species often injurious in Nova Scotia, New England, 
and the West. 

Adults. — -Male has rust-brown wings, with two deep brown cross 
bands and a conspicuous white spot near anal angle of fore wings. Fe- 
male almost wingless with blackish body covered with yellowish- white 
hairs. 

Eggs. — Egg-mass laid on cocoon, but with no protective covering. 
^ Larva. — Head black; first two tussocks on back are black at first 
but whitish on later moults when an additional pencil of long black 
hairs appears on each side of second abdominal segment. 

Pupa. — Female larger than the male. 

Control of Tussock Worms. — Collect and destroy the egg-masses; 
paint the egg-masses with creosote; spray in June with an arsenical; 
band trees with burlap or tar to prevent females from ascending. 

LASIOCAMPIDiE (TENT-CATERPILLAR MOTHS) 

Orchard Tent-caterpillar {Malacosoma americana Fab.). — Period- 
ically a serious defoliator of orchard and forest trees and occurring as far 
west as the Rockies. 

Adult. — A brown moth expanding ij^^ inches; fore wings crossed 
obliquely by two pale lines; female larger than male. 

Eggs. — A glistening brown mass (200-300) encircling the twigs, 
covered with a gluey froth. Each end of belt of eggs tapers; each 
egg J^5 inch long, elongate, thimble-shaped. 

Larva. — A hairy black soft velvety caterpillar, 2 inches long, with 
a white stripe down the back; on each side a row of blue spots; sides 
streaked with white or yellow lines; under side blackish. Caterpillars 
of a colony form silken tents at angles of branches and feed away from 
tents. Matures in 4-5 weeks. 

Pupa. — Cocoons formed under bark, in crevices, etc., elongated- 
oval; outer silk delicate and loose, inner part firm and close; a yellow 
powder within. Pupal stage lasts 2-3 weeks. 

Life-history. — Winters in the egg state; eggs hatch in May when the 
buds are beginning to open and the caterpillars reach maturity in June. 



204 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Adults appear and eggs are laid in July. There is but one brood each 
year. 

Forest Tent-caterpillar (Malacosoma dis stria Hbn.) differs from the 
preceding in the following particulars: egg-mass is nearly square at 
the ends; caterpillars do not construct tents; line along the back 
is broken with dots; transverse lines on the wings of moth are darker 
than ground color. 

Parasites, — Pimpla conquisitor, P. inquisitor, Tachina mella, 
Anomolon exile. Calosoma and Podisus are predaceous enemies. 

Control. — Destroy the egg-masses; spray caterpillars with arseni- 
cal; burn off the tents; band trees with burlap or tar to prevent the 
caterpillars from ascending. 

GROUP GEOMETRINA (GEOMETERS) 

Chief Families (after Comstock) 

A. Media2 of the hind wings wanting, being represented merely by a fold in the 
wing. — EnnomidcB. 
AA. Mediaa of the hind wings present. 

B. Media2 of the hind wings arising much nearer to Mediai than to 
Medias. 

Wings usually green. — GeometridcB. 
BB. Media2 of the hind wings arising nearly midway between Mediai 
and Medias or nearer to Mediaa than to Mediai. Wings rarely green. 
C. Subcosta and Radius of hind wings extending distinctly separate 
from each other, except that they are connected by a cross vein 
near the middle of the discal cell. — HydriomenidcB. 
CC. Subcosta and Radius of hind wings approximated or coalesced for a 
greater or less distance. 

D. Subcosta and Radius of the hind wings closely approximated 
but not coalesced along the second fourth (more or less) of 
the discal cell. 
E. Radius and Mediai of hind wings separating at or 
before the apex of the discal cell. — EnnomidcB. 
EE. Radius and Mediai of hind wings coalesced for a 
considerable distance beyond the apex of the discal 
cell. — MonocteniidcB. 
DD. Subcosta and Radius of the hind wings coalesced for a short 
distance near the beginning of the second fourth of the 
discal cell, thence rapidly diverging. — Sterrhida. 
DDD. Subcosta and Radius of the hind wings coalesced to or 
beyond the middle of the discal cell. 
E. Fore wings with one or two accessory cells. — 
HydriomenidcB. 
EE. Fore wings without an accessory cell. — Monodeniida. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 205 

MONOCTENIIDiE 

Spring Canker Worm {Palceacrita vernata Peck.). — A widely distrib- 
uted insect from Canada to Texas, and from Maine to Kansas 
and California. 

Adults. — ^Male moth with thin brownish-grey silky wings, i inch 
expanse; fore wings with a row of light markings near outer margin and 
three transverse dark irregular bands; female moth wingless, 3^^ inch 
long, dull grey or brown with a dark brown stripe down the middle of 
the back. April-May. 

Eggs. — Yellowish-green, oval, 3-^5 inch long; laid in irregular masses 
of about 50 under loose bark, in crevices. Hatch in a month about 
the time of unfolding of the leaves. 

Larva. — Slender, cylindrical, i inch long, with only two pairs of pro- 
legs, with narrow longitudinal yellow-white lines, and a yellow stig- 
matal stripe along each side; ventral surface white. Mature in 4 to 5 
weeks, when it drops to ground by a silk thread and enters to a depth 
of 2 to 5 inches. 

Pupa. — Cocoon an earthen cell lined with silk; pupa remains in it 
until following spring; light brown and pitted. Male pupa spined. 

Parasites, Etc. — ^Hymenoptera, Diptera and birds. 

Fall Canker Worm (Alsophila pometaria Harris). — Widely distrib- 
buted — -Eastern Canada, New England, New York, Ohio, California. 

Adults. — Male moth with darker, stronger wings than that of the 
spring Canker Worm ; fore wings crossed with two light bands ; hind 
wings darker. Female moth wingless, ashy-grey, no markings, an- 
tennae long. October-November. 

Eggs. — Brownish-grey, flower-pot like, outer end with a dark spot 
surrounded by a dark ring; laid in clusters of 100, in rows, each egg 
fastened on end and to the bark. Hatch in May, about the time of 
unfolding of the leaves. 

Larva. — Resembles in a general way that of the Spring Canker 
Worm, but has a broad dark stripe along the back and three pairs of 
prolegs near hind end of body. When disturbed or full grown it 
drops to the ground by a silken thread. It forms a cocoon in the 
ground. Matures in 4 to 5 weeks. 

Pupa. — Cocoon tough and contains more silk than that of Spring 
Canker Worm ; pupa stouter and spine of male pupa forked. 



2o6 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Control. — Spray with arsenate of lead just after the leaves unfold; 
band trees with burlap in fall. 

ENNOMIDiE 

Pepper-and-salt Currant Moth {Amphidasis cognataria Guen.). — 
Injures leaves of currant, gooseberry, plum, Spirea and maple. 

Adult. — Body grey, with black dots; wing expanse 2 inches, grey 
with dark brown dots and two wavy brown cross bands on the outer 
third. May and August. 

Eggs. — Cylindrical, with surface marked with rows of hexagonal 
depressions; )^o inch long. 

Larva. — A geometrid or measuring caterpillar, 2 inches long; green 
to brownish-black in color, with indistinct green or yellow lines and 
spots. Full grown in July. 

Fupce. — Pupse dark brown, ^^ inch long, formed in the ground. 
Some change to moths in August, but others do not change until 
following May. 

Lime Tree Winter Moth (Erannis tiliaria Harris). — Occasionally 
injurious to the leaves of elm, basswood, hickory, apple, etc. 

Adult. — Male, with rusty-buff body and fore wings, and lighter 
hind wings. Female wingless, light brown to grey with markings. 
Oct.-Nov. 

Eggs. — Cream colored, cyhndrical with ends blunt-rounded. 
Hibernate. 

Larva. — A bright-yellow looper, with rust-colored head, and 
ten crinkled black lines along the back. Full grown larva i Ji -i M inches. 
June. 

Pupa. — July-Oct. 

Currant Span Worm (Itamera rihearia Fitch). Adult. — A pale 
yellowish geometrid moth with brownish spots, ij^ inches expanse; 
markings on wings variable and often with one or two cross bands. 
Mid-summer. 

Eggs. — ^Laid on twigs about July; hatch the following spring when 
leaves are full grown. 

Larva. — A yellow striped and black spotted looper, a little more 
than an inch long; full grown in 3 to 4 weeks. 

Pupa. — Formed just beneath the surface of ground; duration 2 to 
3 weeks. One brood each season. 

Control. — Spray with arsenical or pyrethrum. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 207 

Mottled Umber Moth {Erannis defoliaria Clerck). — Destructive 
in plum and cherry orchards on the Pacific slope. A European 
insect, resembling the basswood or lime tree span-worm {Erannis 
tiliaria) . 

Adult. — Appears in November; female wingless, brown, with rows 
of brown spots; fore wings of male dull ochre-brown, crossed by two 
dark waved bands; hind wings pale and mottled with brown dots. 

Larva. — Active in June- July; a span-worm, with black stripes sepa- 
rated by reddish-brown stripes; spiracles in reddish-brown blotches. 

Bruce's Measuring Worm {Rachela bruceata Hulst). — Destructive 
in New York in 1886 and in Alberta in 1902-3. 

Adult. — Female wingless, 3^^ inch long, light brownish-grey; 
male winged, expanding ij^ inches, pale brownish. Oct.-Nov. 

Eggs. — Reddish-orange, oval, finely pitted; laid singly in crevices 
of bark; hatch in April. 

Larva. — Three-fourths inch long, apple-green, with three narrow 
yellowish- white stripes along each side of body; head and thoracic 
shield black; feeds 4 or 5 weeks in April and May, especially on blossom 
buds. 

Pupa. — ^Light brown in a slight silk-lined cocoon in the ground. 
One generation in a season. 

PsYCHiD^ (Bag- WORM Moths) 

Evergreen Bag Worm {Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis Haworth). — 
Occurs on conifers, red cedar and arbor vitae. 

Adult. — Female wingless, naked and grub-like; male with trans- 
parent wings. September-October. 

Eggs. — Deposited in a mass within a bag composed of silk mixed with 
bits of leaf and twig in September-October. They winter over and 
hatch in May- June. 

Larvce. — Feed on the leaves within bags which are gradually en- 
larged as they mature. 

Pupce. — Formed within the bags. 

Control. — Spray foliage with arsenical solution; gather cocoons 

and bags. 

PYR.\LIDINA GROUP 

Families (After Comstock) 

E. Wings not fissured. 

F. Hind wings without a fringe of hairs at base of Cubitus. 



2o8 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

G. Fore wings with fourth and fifth branches of Radius separate, the 
latter arising from the discal cell. — Pyraustidce. 
GG. Fore wings with fourth and fifth branches of Radius united at base. 
— Pyralididce. 
FF, Hind wings with a fringe of hairs at base of Cubitus. 
G. Radius of fore wings 5-branched. 

H. Maxillary palpi more or less developed but not triangular 
as in HH. — GalleriidcB. 
HH. Maxillary palpi well developed, appearing triangular; labial 
palpi long, straight and projecting forward. — CramhidcB. 
GG. Radius of fore wings 4-branched. — Phycitidce. 
EE. Wings fissured. 

F. Wings with less than five fissures. — Pterophoridce. 
FF. Wings with five fissures. — OrneodidcE. 

Pyralidid^ 

Meal Snout Moth (Pyralis farinalis Linn.). Adult. — A pyralid 
moth, I inch wmg expanse. Fore wings with base and tips dark 
brown, middle portion light brown, two wavy white lines crossing 
wings, bordering the middle portion; hind wings grey with two wavy 
whitish lines. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in masses; irregular. 

Larva. — ^Lives within a silken tube; dirty-grey, darker at both 
ends; head brownish-red. 

Pupa. — Brownish-red, in a cocoon. 

Clover Hay Worm (Hypsopygia costalis Fab.). — The caterpillars 
cause injury to stacked or stored clover, near the ground or floor, by 
webbing it together and contaminating it with excrement. 

Adult. — Small; ^5 inch wing expanse; wings silky, margined with 
orange and fringed with golden yellow; two large golden spots at the 
thirds of the fore wings, extending to hind margin as narrow lilac lines. 
Two straw colored lines on hind wing. Under surface of wings pale 
yellowish; head and legs straw colored; antennae and palpi pale orange. 
Two broods. June- July; August, 

Eggs. — ^Laid probably on growing clover heads. June and August. 

Larva. — ^Three-fourth inch long, dull brown; head, shield and anal 
plate black after last moult; segments much wrinkled and provided 
with several smooth shining areas each bearing a fine white hair. 
Hibernates. 

Pupa. — Honey-yellow; cocoon J^^ inch long, oblong-oval, white, 
silky, intermingled with excrement and bits of hay. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 209 

Control. — Remove old hay and if infested burn it; raise stack above 
ground a few feet on old rails, etc. Salt bottom of stack. 

Grape Leaf Folder (Desmia funeralis Hbn.). — Occurs on wild and 
cultivated grapes, and is widely distributed over the United States 
and Canada. Causes injury by skeletonizing the upper surface of 
leaves, while protected under their folds. 

Adult. — Wings expanded, %o inch, dark brown and bordered with 
white. Fore wings with two oval white spots; hind wings of male with 
one spot, of female spot divided. Body black, crossed by two white 
bands in female, one in male. Antennae of male knotted near the 
middle. Two broods; May and July-August. 

Eggs. — Minute, elliptical; laid singly on under side of leaf. Dura- 
tion 8-10 days. 

Larva. — One inch long when full grown; widest in middle; yellowish- 
green on sides; head and prothoracic shield light brown; sides of first 
two thoracic segments with light brown spots; six instars. Duration 
about 4 weeks. First brood matures in July, second in Sept.-October. 

Pupa. — Formed usually on the ground among fallen leaves. Dark 
brown; tapering posteriorly. Hibernates. 

Parasites. — Apanteles, Meteorus, Mesochorus, Exorista, Tachino- 
phyto and others. 

Control. — Spray with arsenate of lead shortly after blossoms have 
fallen. 

Purple-backed Cabbage Worm {Evergestis rimosalis Guen.). — Injuri- 
ous in the Maritime Provinces and Southern States to turnips and 
cabbages. 

Adult. — Small, wing-expanse % inch; fore wings pale satiny- 
yellow with a heart-shaped discal spot, two transverse wavy lines 
across middle of wings, a less distinct line near base and another near 
tip; hind wings silvery- white with a clear black margin. June and 
Oct.-Nov. 

Eggs. — Bright yellow; laid in masses of 20-40 on under surface of 
leaf; hatch in a week. 

Larva. — Three-fourth inch long; bristly, slender, tapering to each 
end; back purplish; head, anal plate and two spots on second segment 
black. July and Sept.-Oct. Full grown in 2 to 3 weeks. 

Pupa. — Winters as a chrysalis. Two broods in a season, the last 
brood being the more injurious. Probably three broods in the South. 

14 



2IO ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Control. — Same as for imported cabbage worm (Pieris rapcB), p. 176. 

Sugar Beet Web Worm (Loxostege sticticalis Linn.).— Injurious in 
Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta to alfalfa, turnips, rape, onions, 
peas, cabbage, and other garden plants; in the middle western states 
and the prairie provinces on sugar beets. A native of Europe and 
Northern Asia. 

Adult. — A purplish-brown moth, with darker and paler bands; wing 
expanse i inch. May and June. 

Eggs. — Broadly oval, Ylb inch long, pale green; laid in clusters 
(3-10) on the leaves. 

Larva. — One inch long, dark with a white stripe down the back and 
one on each side, marked with many black and white tubercles. 

In Colorado the first brood of larvae feed on pigweed and alfalfa in 
June; the second brood appears in July, and sohietimes injures beets; 
the third brood about middle of August is most injurious. Most of 
the larvae hibernate in the ground m long silken tubes. 

Pupa. — The pupa is formed in early spring in the silken tube. 

Greenhouse Leaf Tyer {Phlyctcenia ferrugalis Hbn.). — A serious pest 
in greenhouses to violet, rose, carnation, and other plants; and outdoors 
to beet, celery, lettuce, sweet pea and other plants. It ties up con- 
tiguous leaves by webs and feeds within, skeletonizing the leaves. 
Widely distributed. 

Adult. — A small moth, % inch wing expanse; fore wings light 
brown and with blackish cross lines; hind wings grey with darker 
margins. 

Eggs. — Translucent, oval disks, 1^2 inch long; laid in clusters of 
8 to 12; hatch in 19-20 days. 

Larva. — Three-fourths inch when full grown; greenish white with a 
green line down the back and another on either side; head straw colored; 
mottled. Full grown in 3-5 weeks; feeds mostly at night. 

Pupa. — Formed within the webbed leaves. 

Control. — Spray or dip the plants in solution of arsenate of lead as 
soon as larvae are observed; hand pick infested leaves. 

Crambid^ (Close-wings) 

• Root or Sod Web Worms {Cramhus spp.). — In July and August 
many small greyish moths with closely folded wings and with project- 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 211 

ing mouth-parts (labial palpi) are common on grass lands and collect in 
large numbers about lights. The caterpillars of these moths live in the 
sod in silk-lined burrows among the roots of the grass, feeding upon 
them. Corn is sometimes injured. 

Adults. — Several species; yellowish-white wings with silver stripes, 
bands, gold lines and other markings. Two broods. June-July. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in grass land in June- July and again Sept.-Oct.; 
oval, yellowish, ridged, 200 by each female; hatch in 6-10 days. 

LarvcB. — Color varying from yellowish- white to pink to reddish; 
surface tubercled with tufts of bristly hairs; form loose silken webs 
and feed on the roots; full grown in 5 to 7 weeks; }4 to % inch long. 
Hibernate in webs partly grown. 

PupcB. — Cocoons formed often in the larval webs; 12 to 15 days. 

Control. — Plow land early in autumn to prevent egg deposition; 
plow early in spring; use trap-lanterns to catch the moths. 

Cranberry Girdler {Crambus hortuellus Hbn.). — (See Bull. 554, Bur. 
Ent. U. S. Dep. Agr.) An injurious pest of cranberry vines, widely 
distributed in United States and Canada. Its host plants are certain 
grasses, Scirpus americanus, and cranberry. 

The moths appear in June, and eggs are laid on the trash covering 
the ground. These hatch in about 10 days. The larva feeds through- 
out the summer and fall; when full grown it is about half an inch long, 
with dark brown or black head, light amber colored thoracic shield and 
tip of abdomen, and sooty-white body bearing many long and short 
hairs black at the base. It forms cocoons in October-November, but 
pupates following spring. Duration of pupal stage about 3 weeks. 
The cocoon is composed of scraps of ground debris — bits of dead leaves, 
bark, twigs, fine roots, grasses and sand — held together by strands of 
silk. Its interior is lined with silk. Variable in shape, but usually 
enlarged at one end. 

Control.— FaW flooding after picking the crop; sanding; pruning. 

Larger Com Stalk Borer (Diatrcea saccharalis Fab.). — A serious pest 
of Southern corn fields, originally of sugar cane. The caterpillar feeds 
early in the season on the ''throat" of the young corn, destroying the 
growing tip, and later feeds as a borer in the lower stalk, where it 
hibernates. 

Adult. — A pale brownish-yellow moth, wing expanse of i}i inches, 
fore wings darker than hind wings and bear faint markings. Wings 



212 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

held close to body when at rest. First brood appears April ist to 
May 15th; and second brood May 15th to July ist. 

Eggs. — Flat, scale-like, circular, J 100 ii^ch long, placed in rows 
overlapping one another (2-25) on under side of a lower leaf; creamy 
white at first; hatch in 7 to 10 days. 

Larva. — Robust, dirty-white caterpillar i inch long, thickly covered 
with roundish dark spots each with a single bristle; head and thoracic 
shield brownish-yellow. Hibernating larva is unspotted. Summer 
duration 20 to 30 days. 

Pupa. — Light yellow changing to rich mahogany-brown, % inch 
long. Pupation in the stalk; duration 7 to 10 days. (Consult Farmers' 
Bulletin 634, U. S. Dept. of Agr.) 

Pyraustid^ 

European Com Borer (Pyratista nuhilalis Hbn.). — (Consult Bull. 
178, Mass. Ag. Exp. St.) A pale yellowish or reddish brown moth of 
about I inch wing expanse, introduced from Europe into Massachusetts, 
whose larva bores into corn stalks. Its wild food plants are barnyard 
grass, foxtail, pigweed, and its cultivated food plants are corn, hemp, 
hops and millet. A possible serious enemy of corn. 

Galleriid^ 

Bee-moth {Galleria mellonella Linn.). — Known also as Wax-worm. 
Often a serious pest of bee-hives feeding on stored combs and honey, 
and combs occupied by bees. 

Adult. — Wings ashy-grey, hind part of fore wing bronze colored; 
body brown, about J^^ inch long. Appears April 15th to -May 15th, 
and again in July; lays her eggs in hives in crevices at night. 

Eggs. — Elliptical, J^o ii^ch long, pearly white — hatch in 12 days. 

Larva. — White; i inch long; feeds at night, and makes silk-lined 
tunnels in the comb. 

Pupa. — Formed in a tough cocoon on side of hive. Hibernates. 

Life-history. — In the north two broods appear — the first in May, 
the second in July-August, and under favorable conditions it requires 
only 6 weeks from egg to adult. 

Control. — Keep colonies strong; keep Italian bees; use well made 
hives, fumigate with carbon bisulphide. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 213 

PHYCITIDiE 

Apple Leaf Grumpier (Mineola indigenella Zeller). — A widely 
distributed moth but injurious mainly in the Central States on 
buds in early spring. 

Adult. — Wing expanse % inch; fore wings brown with patches 
and streaks of silver. Emerges in June. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in midsummer and hatch in about a week. 

Larva. — Three-fifth inch long when full grown; greenish brown, head 
and thoracic shield dark brown; young larva brown, feeding on leaves 
of tender shoots; construct crooked cornucopia-like cases of fras 
and silk. Winters as half grown larva. Injures the buds in spring. 
Full grown in June. 

Pupa. — Reddish-brown. 

Control. — Early spraying with arsenate of lead. 

Apple Leaf Skeletonizer {Psorosina hammondi Riley). — Sometimes 
injurious in Mississippi Valley especially on nursery stock, but not 
common northward and eastward. 

Adult. — A pyrahd moth, ^-2 mch wmg expanse; fore wings glossy, 
purplish-brown, marked with two transverse silvery grey bands. 
Two broods a season. May-June and August. 

Larva. — Small, 3^^ inch long, greenish or brownish, with 4 black 
shining tubercles on back behind the head, and with a broad darker 
stripe along each side of back. Feeding singly, or in groups, in July 
and Sept.-Oct., on upper surface of leaves under a silken web, skeleton- 
izmg them and giving them a rusty blighted appearance. 

Pupa. — Formed among the leaves in a slight cocoon; pale brown, 
J^ inch long. 

Mediterranean Flour -moth (Ephestia kuehniella Zeller) . A dull. — A 
pyralid moth, % inch wing expanse. Fore wings grey with transverse 
black zigzag lines; hind wings greyish white with a darker border. 
Both wings fringed. New generation every two months; lives about 
a week (Fig. 133). 

Eggs. — White, elongate oval; a female depositing as many as 200 
eggs singly in flour, in cracks, and about machinery; hatch in about 
a week. 

Larva. — One -half inch long; white with fine black dots, sparsely cov- 
ered with hairs. Feeds within a silken tube and spins a silken web, 



214 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



matting the flour together and causing much damage. Full grown 
in 40 days. 

Pupa. — Formed in a cocoon; duration 11 days; cyHndrical, reddish- 
brown above and Hghter below; a cluster of small booklets at tip of 
abdomen. 

Control. — Fumigate with carbon bisulphide, carbon tetrachloride 
or hydrocyanic acid gas; or better still raise room to high temperature 
of 120-130° for 6 hours. 




Fig. 133. — Mediterranean flour moth {Ephestia kuehniella) : a, moth; b, same 
from side, resting; c, larva; d, pupa; e, abdominal segments of larva; a-d, enlarged; 
e, more enlarged. {After Chittenden, U. S. Bur. Ent.) 

Indian Meal -moth {Plodia inter punctella Hbn.). Adult. — A pyralid 
moth, 5^^^ inch wing expanse. Fore wings with outer portion red- 
dish-brown with fine transverse markings, the middle copper and the 
inner portion grey; hind wings grey. A new generation in about five 
weeks. 

Eggs. — Small, whitish; as many as 350 eggs laid either singly or 
in clusters; hatch in 4 days. 

Larva. — One-half inch long, whitish or pinkish, sparsely hairy. 

Pupa. — Cocoon elliptical-cylindrical. 



Gelechiid^ 

Angoumois Grain Moth {Sitotroga cerealella Oliv.). Adult. — A 
small moth like a clothes moth; % inch long; yellowish-grey. Hind 
wing dark grey, bordered with fine silvery fringe. Fore wing with a 
black dot between base and middle. 

Eggs. — Milky-white to pale red;3-^o iiich long; bottle-shaped; 60-90 
eggs hatching in 4 to 10 days. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 215 

Larva. — Body white, densely covered with bristles, tapering slightly 
backward; head and antennae brown. Feeds within the kernel of grain. 

Pupa. — One-fifth inch long, brownish, ovate; eyes black. Formed 
within kernel. 

Peach Twig Borer (Anarsia lineatella Zeller). — Destructive to grape 
roots, peach and other trees in California and British Columbia and 
troublesome also in the East. 

Adult. — Dark grey; wings fringed with yellowish-grey, fore wing 
marked with blackish-brown spots or streaks; expands 3-2 inch; several 
broods each season. 

Eggs. — Yellowish- white, elongate-oval; laid on bark of new twigs 
near base of leaves; duration about 10 days. 

Larva. — One-half inch long; dull reddish-brown with dark-brown 
head; winters in silken cases beneath outer bark at base of new growth; 
first brood attacks young growth, second brood attacks tips and fruit, 
third brood the fruit. 

Pupa. — Reddish-brown, J^ inch long; duration 10-12 days. 

Control. — ^Lime-sulphur just after buds begin to swell. 

Palmer Worm {Dichomeris ligulella Hubner). — (Consult Bull. 187, 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Stn.) Adult. — A minute brownish-grey tineid 
moth, expanding % inch; fore wing sprinkled with black scales, 
and marked near middle with 4 black marks; hind wing fringed, 
dusky. July. Hibernates as adult. 

Eggs. — Probably laid in May, and hatch in 2 weeks. 

Larva. — Skeletonizes the leaf and eats holes in the young fruit of 
apple; a small caterpillar, J^ inch long; brownish-green; head light 
brown. Dorsal surface with two lateral and two dorsal whitish stripes. 
June. 

Pupa. — A small brown object attached to leaf by a few silk threads, 
duration 10 days. 

The Lesser Bud Moth (Recurvaria nanella Hbn.), a native of Europe, 
occurs in the eastern half of the United States and in Nova Scotia, 
and attacks the buds of apple trees. 

(ECOPHORID^ 

Parsnip Web Worm (Depressaria heracliana DeG.). — A European 
pest introduced about 1873, feeding on wild carrot and on wild and 
cultivated parsnips. 



2l6 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Adult. — Greyish buff or pale ochreous, marked with fuscous 
spots; ^ inch wing expanse; July-August. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in May on leaves, stem and on sheath of inflorescence. 

Larva. — Pale yellow or bluish grey, marked with black tubercles 
bearing bristles; head and thoracic plate bluish black; J^ inch long. 
Larvae first web the flower-heads together and feed on the flowers 
and unripe seeds; they then enter the hollow stems and feed on the soft 

pith. 

Pupa. — Formed within the hollow stem in a silken cocoon. Dura- 
tion 2-3 weeks. 

Control. — Spray carefully the flower-heads as soon as webbing is 
observed with an arsenical. 

iEoERiiD^ = Sesiid^ (Clear Wings) 

Peach Tree Borer {Synanthedon exitiosa Say).- — (Consult Cir. 54, 
Div. of Ent., U. S. Dep. Ag.; Bull. 170, Cornell Ag. Exp. St.) A native 
insect occurring wherever peaches are grown east of the Rockies. 

Adult. — ^A slender dark-blue clear- winged wasp-Hke moth. Male 
moth with wings transparent and bordered with steel blue; expands 
I inch. Female moth with fore wings blue and clothed with scales; 
hind wings transparent resembling the male; a broad orange band 
about middle of abdomen; expands i^i inches. July-September. 

Eggs. — Minute, oval, yellowish-brown; and hexagonally sculp- 
tured; truncate at one end; deposited on the bark near surface of 
ground. Each female may lay from 300-400 eggs; hatch in about 
10 days. 

Larva. — One inch long when full grown, robust, yellowish-white, 
with head and first segment white. Young larva bores into sap- 
wood at or below surface of ground, and continues feeding well into 
the fall, and after hibernating resumes feeding in spring, reaching full 
growth from July ist-September. Exudation of gum mixed with 
bits of bark and excrement. 

Pupa. — Cocoon-like cell elongated, made of grass and bits of bark 
attached with gum and threads of silk. Duration about 3 weeks. 
One generation each year. 

Control. — Probe or cut out the caterpillar in fall or early spring; 
mounding up the earth about base of tree in spring; protect trunk 
with paper or wire covering or netting (see Ohio Bull. 329). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 217 

Lesser Peach Borer {Synanthedon pictipes G. and R.).— This native 
insect occurs in most of the Northern States, in Ontario, and in some 
of the Southern States, and frequently does considerable injury. The 
larva bores as a rule above the soil level on the trunks and branches. 
Winter is passed as a larva, the pupa is formed in the canker or wound, 
and the moth emerges in June and July. About a month earlier than 
S. exitiosa. Attack by this insect usually follows mechanical and canker 
injuries. 

Imported Currant Borer {Synanthedon tipuliformis Linn.) . A dull. — 
A small clear- winged moth, J^ inch expanse; body black with a yellow 
band about the neck, and three yellow bands across the tufted 
abdomen; fore wings with a margin of blackish scales and a band 
about one-third from the tip. June. 

Eggs. — Small, brown, globular; placed in axils of leaves, or in 
cracks of the canes. 

Larva. — Bores into pith of cane and makes a long black tunnel in 
it; when full grown 3^^ inch long, yellowish; head brown; numerous 
tubercles on body. Half grown by winter; hibernates at bottom of 
burrow; full grown in May. 

Pupa. — Pupates in tunnel. Adult emerges in June. 

Control. — Cutting out and burning the old and affected canes in 
fall or early spring. 

Maple Sesian {Synanthedon acerni Clem.). — A serious borer in soft 
and hard maple shade trees. 

Adult. — A beautiful wasp-like moth, with transparent wings; 
body slender, yellow, banded trimmed with red, abdomen tufted. 
May- June. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in rough places on trunk. 

Larva. — A white caterpillar, }<2 inch long; head yellow; thoracic shield 
light yellow. Burrows mainly just below the bark, often in develop- 
ing tissue. 

Pupa. — Formed at surface. 

Control. — Apply soap-carbolic wash early in spring. 

Squash-vine Borer {Melittia satyriniformis Hbn.) . A dull. — A clear- 
winged moth, I J-^ inch wing expanse. Fore wings opaque, dark metallic 
olive-green. Hind wings transparent, veins and fringe black. Abdo- 
men with orange or black and bronze marks; legs orange; tarsi black 
with white bands. June- July. 



2l8 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Eggs. — Oval, dull-red; J25 inch long; laid singly on stems of plant; 
hatch in 1-2 weeks. 

Larva. — Whitish, stout, i inch long; matures in 4 weeks; tunnels 
in the main stem. Hibernates in the north in a cocoon in the ground. 

Pupa. — Formed in tough silken cocoons in ground, in spring in 
North; pupa dark brown with a horn on head and hook-like spines on 
abdomen; Js i^^^ long. 

Blackberry Crown Borer {Bembecia marginata Harris) . — Occurs from 
Canada to New Mexico. 

Adult. — A clear- winged moth, 1} ^ inches wing expanse; fore wings 
with a transverse band on outer third; abdomen black, with four 
bright yellow cross bands; last segment of female yellow, of male 
black mixed with yellow. Aug.-Sept. 

Eggs. — Oval, reddish-brown, He i^^ch long; laid singly on under 
side of leaves, about 140 by each female. 

Larva. — At first white with a brownish head, hibernating under 
bits of bark or just below surface of ground. In spring bores into 
root girdling it; hibernating again in its burrow; in second spring bores 
upward, and becomes full grown in July. 

Pupa. — Reddish brown, ^4 inch long, 25-30 days; formed in burrow 
near surface of cane. Empty pupal skin usually protrudes from open- 
ing when moth emerges. 

Control. — Remove infested canes during spring and fall when 
thinning and pruning, and burn them. 

ToRTRiciNA Group 

Eucosmidae 

Apple Leaf Sewer {Ancylis nubeculana Clemens). ^ — (Consult N. Y. 
State Mus. Bull. 124; Bull. 435, U. S. Dept. of Agr.) Generally 
distributed over the Northern States and Canada. 

Adult. — A small white tortricid moth with brown markings; wing 
expanse % inch. May- June. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in June on under side of leaf; flat, oval-shaped, flanged, 
minute, yellow; hatch in 8 days. 

Larva. — One-half inch long; yellowish-green; head yellow; thoracic 
shield darker with a black dot on each side; each body segment with 
pale tubercles bearing a single hair. Hibernates in folded leaves on 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 219 

the ground. Full grown in April. Total feeding period 5-6 months. 
Spends the first 3 or 4 weeks of its life under a silken covering on the 
under side of the leaf, afterward within a succession of folded leaves. 
It folds the leaf along the mid-rib and forms its nest within. 

Pupa. — Dark yellowish-brown, but head, eyes and wing shields 
black mottled with yellow. Duration about 10 days. 




Fig. 134. — Codling moth. A, adult moth with wings expanded; B, egg much 
enlarged; C, half of worm-eaten apple; D, cocoon with empty pupa.shell protruding; 
E, cocoon with pupa enclosed; F, leaf and apple showing eggs of a codling moth; 
G, caterpillar or "apple worm" enlarged; H, a, young apple just after petals fall; 
h, cup beginning to close; c, too late to spray. {Montana Ag. Exp, St.) 

Codling Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.). — This European insect 
is probably the most destructive of apple insects and is practically 
cosmopolitan (Fig. 134). 

Adult. — A small greyish-brown moth, % inch expanse; fore wings 
crossed by alternate irregular transverse waxy bands of brown and grey, 
and with a large dark brown spot in the inner hind angle; hind wings 



220 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



light silky brownish-yellow, darker toward the fringed margin. 
Flies at night, about 1-2 weeks after the petals fall. Sometimes 
emerges as late as July ist in northern districts. 

Eggs. — A minute thin scale-like white object, 3^5 inch in diameter, 
at first transparent but later with a blackish streak. Each female 
deposits 60 to 75 eggs, mainly on the leaves i to 3 weeks after the 
blossoms fall; hatch in 5-10 days, or from 3 to 4 weeks after petals 
fall; 60 to 80 per cent, of larva? enter the young fruit at the calyx end. 

Larva. — At first whitish with distinct black tubercles on the body 
and black head; later the tubercles less distinct. When full grown larva 




Fig. 135. — Larvne and pupa? of the codling moth in the bark. 

is ^4 inch long, whitish or pinkish, head dark brown, tubercles indistinct, 
thoracic and anal shields light brown. INIatures in 3-4 weeks. Winters 
as a larva within a white, tough, silken cocoon (Figs. 134 and 135). 

Pupa. — ^Pale brown; }2 inch long, back armed with transverse rows 
of minute spines; within a cocoon; duration of spring pupa? about 21 
days, of summer pupae about 15 days (July 3oth-August 14th in 
Maine). 

Life-history. — Winters as a full grown larva within a cocoon on the 
trunk, under bark, etc.; about the time of apple blossoming the larva 
transforms to a pupa, and the moth emerges 15 to 22 days later. The 
eggs are laid singly on the leaves, stems, and even fruit, where they 
hatch in 7 to 10 days. The young larva feeds for a short time on the 
leaves, but finds its way to the fruit which it enters usually at the calyx 
end. It then makes its way to the core. When full grown in 3 to 4 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 2 21 



weeks it makes its way out of the apple Ijy a round hole and finds a place 
under bark, etc., to make its cocoon. When a second brood occurs 




Fig. 136. — Chart showing life-history of the codling moth with suggested times of 
spraying and banding in Utah. {After Hagon.) 




Fig. 137. — The proper time to spray for the codling moth. 

the moths emerge throughout August, and the second brood larvae 
enter the apples chiefly from the side. In Northern New England and 



222 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



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CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 223 



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224 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Canada, with the cxccplion of Soulhcni Ontario, llicre is but one brood 
a year, with a very small percentage transforming to make a partial 
second generation, but further soutl\ there arc two or even three broods. 
Parasites, Etc. — Trichograniiiia prctiosa, Tromhidium on eggs; 
Pimpla annulipes, Macrocentnis dcJicatus, Ascogaster carpocaps^, 
ItopJcctis marg'niaius, Ilypostcna variabilis and TacJrinopJiyto on larva^; 




Pig. 138. — Bud moth, i, Adult moth; 2, larva; 3, pupa (dorsal view); 4, pupa 

(ventral view). {After DuPorte.) 

some beetles {Tenehr aides cortical is) two species of ants, Lasius niger 
and Solenopsis molesta, woodpeckers and chickadees. (Consult Bull. 
142, Cornell Ag. Exp. St.; Bull. 41, 80, 97, 115, 189, 252, n. s., Div. 
Ent., U. S. Dep. Ag.; Bull. 187, Ont. Dep. Agric.) 

Control. — Spray with arsenical just after the blossoms fall, and again 
in 3 weeks; destroy fallen fruit; band trees about July ist; fumigate 
fruit-houses with sulphur to kill the moth (Fig. 136 and 137). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 225 

Bud Moth (l^mdocera ocellana D. and S.j. -(Consult Jiulls. 50 and 
107, Corncllj. — The caler})illar of this molh sometimes does serious 
injury to the unfolding flower and leaf buds of the af>})le and other 
orchard trees. Introduced from Europe, and occurs from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific. 

Adult. — A small moth with broad yellowish-white bands across ash 
colored fore wings; % inch exj)anse; lives 2-3 weeks. P^merges in June 
and July and deposits eggs (Fig. 138). 

Eggs. — Flattened, disk-shaped, transparent; laid singly or in clusters 
on the under surface of the leaves; hatch in 7-10 days. 




Pig. 139. — Seasonal history of the bud moth in Quebec. 

Larva. — Full grown larva J^ inch long, chestnut brown sparsely 
clothed with light colored hairs borne on darker tubercles; head, legs 
and thoracic shield dark brown or black, smooth and shining. Full 
grown in June. Winters as half-grown larva in small oval silken cases 
on bark of twig. Emerges in spring when buds are expanding and bores 
into the bud and feeds for 6-7 weeks, latterly on the leaves tying them 
together. 

Pupa.— Light brown ; ij^^ inches long; two rows of short blunt back- 
ward pointing spines on back of abdomen; in a thin closely woven silk 

15 



226 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



cocoon within a tube of tangled leaves. Pupal stage lasts about 
lo days. 

Life-history. — Hibernates as a half-grown larva, and matures in 
June; pupal stage lasts lo days and moth emerges in July to deposit 
eggs. Young caterpillars feed on epidermis of under side of leaf and on 
green tissue within a silken tube for protection. Toward the end of 
September they leave their silken tubes and form oval silken cases on 
the smaller twigs near the buds, where they hibernate (Fig. 139). 




Fig. 140. — Pea moth: a, a full grown "worm" or caterpillar (enlarged); 
b, adult moth with wings expanded (enlarged); c, adult moth with wings closed; 
d, a group of five peas injured by the caterpillar of the pea moth. 

Parasites.— Pirn pla conquisitor, Bassus earinoides, Trichogramma 
pretiosa {Pentarthron minutum), Opius sp., Microdus laticinctus. 

Control. — Spray with arsenate of lead when buds are expanding, 
when the leaves are expanded, and before and after blossoming. 

ArgyroploceconsanguinanaW2i\^^vci.\s another bud pest of occasional 

importance. 

Pea Moth {Laspeyresia nigricana Steph.). Adult. — A small grey 
moth % inch long. July (Fig. 140). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 227 

Eggs. — ^Laid in the growing pod; hatch in about 2 weeks. 

Larva. — A small whitish slightly hairy caterpillar with pale brown 
head and thoracic shield; about 3-^ inch long when full grown, feeding 
within the pod on the green peas. 

Pupa. — In a small oval cocoon in the ground near the surface. 

Life-history. — Early in July the moths emerge from cocoons in 
the ground, and begin egg-laying; larvae hatch out in about 2 weeks. 
About the end of July the larvae emerge from the pods and spin small 
oval cocoons near the surface where they remain all winter. 

Control. — Sow early varieties; sow very late; deep fall plowing of 
infested land; spray after blossoming with soap and Paris green and 
repeat in 10 days. 

Lesser Apple Worm (Laspeyresia prunivora Walsh). — (Consult 
Bulls. 68, Part V, and 80, Part III, Bureau of Entomology.) The 
early work of this worm is similar to that of the Codling Worm, 
only nearer the surface on the flesh just under the skin; the young 
larvae hatched in August often eat on the surface of the fruit. Two 
broods in the Northern States, and one in Quebec and northern Ontario. 

Adult. — Ground color of fore wings brown with pale rusty-red 
patches, and with grey, yellowish-white and blue oblique lines; hind 
wings dusky grey at base, shading to black at apex. Appears in early 
June a,bout the same time as the Codling Moth, and again in August. 

Eggs. — Glistening white, minute, flat, oval, and covered with net- 
work of irregular ridges. Deposited on both sides of leaves, but on 
upper surface of fruit, stems, etc; hatch in 4-6 days. 

Larva. — Full-grown larva }i-}i inch long; reddish flesh-colored 
above, lighter below; head brown; thoracic shield yellowish, transparent; 
anal plate brownish, with a brownish comet-like structure on the 
caudal curvature, and with an anal fork; mature in June and July. 
Many of the second brood larvae enter the fruit on the side. Time 
in fruit 2-4 weeks; larva in cocoon before pupation 7-8 days. 
Larvae of second brood winter over. 

Pupa. — Pupation in spring; cocoon densely lined inside with whitish 
silk; pupa brown, 3^^ inch long; pupation stage about 10 days. Empty 
pupal case usually attached to cocoon. 

Control. — As for Codling Moth but spray again in August; destroy 
hawthorns in vicinity. 



2 28 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Laspeyresia molesta Busck. — A new species found injurious to 
peach in District of Columbia. 

Clover Seed Caterpillar (Laspeyresia inter stinctana Clemens). — 
(Consult Bull. 134, 111. Ag. Exp. St.) Injures heads of red clover, 
white clover and alsike. 

AdidL — A silky dark brown moth, expanding about J^ inch; fore 
wings with 8 or 9 silvery markings along the front margin, and 2 
curved markings on hind margin forming two crescents when wings 
are closed; hind wings dark brown with pale fringes. Probably three 
broods each season. May- June ; July ; Aug.-Sept. 

Eggs. — At first green, later yellowish- white ; slightly flattened 
orbicular; hatch in 5 or 6 days; laid on young clover heads, or on 
young stems and leaflets near the base. 

Larva. — One-third inch long; dirty- white to orange; head dark brown 
and polished; thoracic shield yellowish or dark brown with a clear me- 
dian line; dorsal tubercles arranged in 2 pairs and bearing hairs; body 
with several pale stiff hairs. Mature in 4 to 5 weeks. 

Pupa. — Brown, 3^^ inch long. Cocoon oval, white, silken, usually 
with bits of flower tissue and excrement attached. Spun in a clover 
head or at surface of ground. Duration 14 to 30 days. 

Control. — Cut and store the clover crop early in June; do not allow 
clover to run for more than 2 years. 

Grape Berry Moth {Polychrosis viteana Clemens). — (Consult Bull. 
223, Cornell and Bull. 293, Ohio). A serious grape pest causing wormy 
grapes. 

Adult. — A purplish-brown tortricid moth, ^2 inch expanse; wings 
leaden-blue with dark spots. Two broods. 

Eggs. — Minute, whitish and scale-like, laid on stems of flower clusters 
or later on the green berries; hatch in 4-8 days. 

Larva — Mature caterpillar, % inch long, dark green to purplish; 
head light brown; thoracic shield black; body covered with many 
faint spots bearing whitish hairs; 3 weeks. 

Pupa. — Formed in a thin silk cocoon in a piece of leaf; light green- 
ish-brown. Duration 10-14 days. 

Life-history. — In June- July the moths appear and lay their eggs 
in the blossoms and on young grapes. The young larvae feed on the 
blossoms and young berries, webbing the clusters together. They 
mature in 3 weeks and pupae are formed in cocoons made from bits 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 229 

of leaf and lined with silk. Moths emerge in 10 to 14 days in early 
August. The eggs of second generation are laid on the berries, and the 
larvae feed on the pulp and seeds. Sometimes there is a third generation. 
Winter is passed in the pupal stage. 

Control.— Spra,y with arsenate of lead, 4 lb., Bordeaux 2:3 : 50, and 
2 lb. dissolved soft soap just after blooming; in August, when the 
berries are half-grown, or about 7 weeks after the grapes bloom, use 
6 lb. arsenate of lead. 

ToRTRiciD^ (Leaf Rollers) 

Fruit Tree Leaf Roller {Cacoecia argyrospila Walker).— (Consult 
Bull. 311, Cornell, Bull. 250, Ont. Dep. Ag.) A serious enemy of the 
apple east of the Rockies. It attacks also pears and plums, and some 
shade and forest trees. 





Fig. 141. — Egg-masses of fruit tree leaf roller. 
Natural size. (After Caesar.) 



Fig. 142. — Fruit tree leaf 
roller: a, female; b, male. 
Naturaljsize. (After Caesar.) 



Adult. — Front wings mottled with a rusty-brown shade and silvery- 
white markings, hind wmgs light ashy brown without markings, % inch 
wing expanse. Early July; one brood each year (Fig. 142). 

Eggs. — Attached to upper side of twigs in small oval, flat, greyish 
varnish-covered patches, about 100 eggs in each egg- mass, in July. 
Hatch as buds are opening. Hibernate (Fig. 141). 

LarvcB. — At first are black-headed and green; tie together the young 
leaves and blossoms with a silk web, later cut large irregular cavities 



230 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

out of young fruit. Injured fruit falls or is deformed. The leaves are 
also badly injured. Full grown in three weeks; about i inch long; 
light green; head, thoracic shield and legs brown to black. 

Pupa. — Formed within a rolled leaf, brownish; duration about 10 
days. 

Control. — Spray with lime-sulphur (32°) and lead arsenate (3 lb. to 
100 gal. water) about May 15, June i and June 15; use Scalecide 
(i to 15) just before leaf-buds burst to destroy the eggs. 

Cherry Tree Tortrix {Caccecia cerasivorana Fitch). — A pest of 
cultivated and choke cherries. 

Adult. — A tortricid moth, expanding about an inch; front wings 
ochreous yellow with irregular brownish spots and many transverse 
pale blue bands. July-August. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in flat gluey-covered masses on twigs mainly near the 
ground; hibernate; hatch in spring. 

LarvcB. — ^Lemon-yellow, 5^^ inch long; colony forms nest enclosed 
in silk web. Mature in July. 

PupcB. — Formed within the dirty ugly nest. Duration 10 to 14 
days. Pupal skms project from nest. 

Control. — Cut out and burn the nests before the moths emerge. 

Oblique Banded Leaf Roller [Caccecia rosaceana Harris) . — Injurious 
to leaves and buds of orchard trees and small fruits; widely distributed. 

Adult. — A yellowish-brown tortricid moth with three oblique 
dark bands across the fore wings; bell-shaped with wings folded; hind 
wings pale yellow. End of June. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in flat patches on the bark where they winter. 

LarvcB. — Roll up and fasten together the young leaves within which 
they feed; % inch long; yellowish-green; head and thoracic shield brown- 
ish-black; two broods, one feeding in May- June, the other in July- 
August. 

Pupa. — A dark brown object formed in its silken shelter in folded 
leaves. 

Control. — Spray with arsenate of lead in early spring and July. 

Caccecia scmiferana occurs on apple. 

The Large Aspen Tortrix {Caccecia conflictana Walk.) occurred in 
destructive numbers in Manitoba in 191 6-1 7 on aspen poplars, although 
it is usually a rare insect. According to Criddle the adult emerges in 
July and lays flat masses of eggs on the leaves. The caterpillars eat 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 23 1 

holes in the leaves and spin much silk. About the end of July they go 
into hibernation resuming feeding in the spring and pupating in July. 
The natural means of control are hymenopterous parasites, birds, and 
sudden climatic changes in early spring. 

Lesser Apple Leaf Roller (Peronea minuta Rob.). — Sometimes inju- 
rious in Eastern nurseries, causing the leaves to become folded and 
brown; also a pest of cranberry bogs. 

Adult. — Small, % inch wmg expanse; fore wings of summer brood 
bright orange colored; of the autumn brood slaty-grey. Two or three 
brooded. Hibernates. 

Eggs. — Minute, disk-like, yellow; laid on unfolding leaves. 

Larva. — Feeds within a folded leaf for 3 to 4 weeks. Broods work 
in May, July and September. 

Pupa. — Small, J^ inch long, brown; head with a knob-like projection; 
within a silken web or cocoon. Duration 7 to 10 days. 

Spruce Bud Worm (Harmologa fumiferana Clem.). — (Consult Bull. 
210, Maine Ag. Exp. St. and Hewitt's Reports.) A destructive pest 
of spruces in Northern United States, Eastern Canada, Manitoba 
and Vancouver. 

Adult. Fore wings brown, varied with short dark brown striae; 
hmd wings dark fuscous. July. 

Eggs.— Vale green, scale-like, fiat; laid in patches overlapping each 
other. Hatch in about 10 days. 

Larva. — When young pale green with a yellowish tint; head dark 
brown, thoracic shield amber with two dots on posterior margin; hairs 
half as long as thickness of body Jf i^ich long. Just before last moult 
uniformly rust-red brown, and head and shield black. Full grown 
larva with thick stout body tapering from middle to end; head not 
quite so wide as body, and dark brown. 

Feeds on needles of terminal shoots, often separating them at base 
and spinnmg a silk thread about them and the bud scales. Hibernates 
among the terminal shoots, becoming full grown the following June- 

July- 

Pupa. — Thick; thorax swollen; pale brown color striped with brown; 
antennae and legs dull tan color. 

Parasites. — Winthemia fumiferance, Pimpla inquisitor and P. con- 
quisitor^ Meteorus trachynotus, Conoblasta fumiferance, Mesochorus 
diversicolor, Epiurus innominatus. 



232 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Strawberry Leaf Rollers (Ancy/is (om plana Im()Ii1 dndCacoecia ohsole- 
lana Walker). ^ — ^Thcsc Iwo lortricids oflcii do injury to strawberry 
leaves by rollin^ij a!i(l destroying them. 'I'hey may be controlled by 
spraying the phmls with a solution of lead arsenate (5 lb. to too gal. 
water) witliin a week after the lirst aj)|)earance of the Moths. 

IIkliozkud^-: 

Resplendent Shield Bearer {Coptodisia sp/endoriferclla Clem.). — 
Sometimes a serious |)est in orchards. Found from Maine to 
Minnesota. 

AiInJt.-'A small brilliantly colored golden-headed moth; fore wings 
leaden grey and lustrous at base, outer portion golden with silver and 
dark brown streaks; hind wings rich grey with long yellowish fringe; 
antenna' brown tinged with gold. May June. 

yt/,'^'.v.— Laid on lea\'es. 

Larva. — Small, ' s inch long, legless, light yellowish brown; head dark; 
makes 'an irregular dark blotch mine ' .^ inch in diameter, in the leaf. 
When full grown in July it cuts out a portion of the mine and forms a 
seed-like yellowish shield, which is attached to bark. A second brood 
in Se])tember, and in October the seed-like i)ui)a case is formed. 

Pupa. — In an o\al, disk-shaped seed-like case. Hibernates. 

Diamond-back Moth {PlutcUa macidipcnnis Curtis). — A widely 
distributed insect in U. S. and Canada. The cater|)illar occasionally 
attacks the leaves of turni[)s and cabbages, and does considerable 
injury. 

Adult. — A slender moth of a general ashy-grey color with white 
marks on the back, diamond-shai)ed when wings are closed; J5 inch 
wing expanse. 

Kggs. — ^Minute, scale-like, greenish white or yellowish, laid singly 
on lower surface of leaves. 

Larva. — A minute, active, dull green caterpillar with si)in(lle-shaped 
body and with a wriggling motion when disturbed; mature form pfo 
inch long; feeds on the lower surface oi the leaves; effects visible in July. 

Pupa. Slender, yelU)wish, ' j inch long, enclosed in a beautiful 
white lace like cocoon on the surface of the leaves. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 233 

Probably two or more broods in a year in Canada; seven broods 
at Rocky Ford, Colorado. 

Control. — Broadcast 2 to 3 cwt. ground lime per acre on appearance 
of moths on a dewy morning. Brush off caterpillars. Spray the 
caterpillars with kerosene emulsion, care being taken to get the solution 
on the under surfaces of the leaves. 



Yponomeutid^ 

Apple Fruit Miner {Argyresthia conjugella Zeller). — Occurs in 
western portions of Canada and the U. S. 

Adult. — One-half inch spread; fore wings purplish-grey mottled with 
brown, with a row of small white and brown dots on front margins and 
a broad white interrupted band. May-June. 

Larva. — Pinkish-white; J^g inch long; burrows in all directions 
through fruit. Also on wild crab. 

Pupa. — In white cocoon with open pattern, under bark or leaves. 

White Cedar Twig Borer (Argyresthia thuiella Pack.). — Causes a 
rusty appearance on white cedars along the Ottawa. 

Adult. — A small pearly white moth with costal and apical brownish 
spots; head and thorax white; antennae white with brown rings. Latter 
half of June. 

Larva. — Slender, olive green, brownish at anal end; head black and 
shining; thoracic shield piceous; 3^^ inch long before winter sets in; 
hibernates in mines made in the young twigs; renews growth at end of 
May and is J^ inch long when full grown in June. 

Pupa. — No cocoon; formed in the mines. 

The Apple Ermine Moth {Vponomeuta malina) and the Cherry 
Ermine Moth (Yponomeuta padella L.) are destructive orchard pests 
in Europe. They reached the U. S. in 1914 on nursery stock imported 
from France into New York State, and were discovered in shipments of 
ornamental shrubs and fruit seedlings into New Brunswick in 191 7. 

The moths are small, about ^^5 inch wing expanse; fore wings white 
with black dots; hind wings grey and broadly fringed. The caterpillars 
are about ^^ inch long and vary in color from pale to greyish or greenish 
brown. The moths fly during July and August; the eggs hatch in the 
fall and the young larvae hibernate beneath the scaly covering formed 
by the egg-masses. 



234 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Haploptiliid^ 



Case Bearers. — Two species of Case Bearers are found in apple 
orchards: the Cigar Case Bearer, and the Pistol Case Bearer. They 
do most injury to the young buds and blossoms. 

I. Cigar Case Bearer {Haploptilia fletcherella Fernald). — (Consult 
Bull. Q3, Cornell Ag. Exp. St.; Bull. 80, Pt. II, Bur. Ent, U. S. Dep. 




Fig. 



143. — a. Cigar case bearers and their work on apple leaves; b, pistol case 
bearer and its work on young fruit. Natural size. {After Caesar.) 



V2 



inch; wings 



Ag.) Adult. — A small greyish moth, expanding 
broadly fringed. June-July (Fig. 143, a). 

Eggs. — Delicate light lemon-yellow; pitted; cylindrical; laid singly 
on under sides of leaves; hatch in ia-14 days, about July 15th. 

LarvcB. — Orange colored; head black; feed as miners for 2-3 
weeks within the leaf, then later in curved cases on the leaves. About 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 235 

September 15th they migrate to the twigs where they hibernate in their 
cases. About April 15th they attack the young buds, etc.; about the 
end of May they make their characteristic cigar-shaped cases, within 
which they feed on the leaves. About the end of June they change to 
pupae. 

Pupa. — ^Light brown; duration about 10 days. 

2. Pistol Case Bearer {Haploptilia malivorella Riley). — (Consult 
Bull. 124, Cornell Agric. Exp. St.) The life history of this species is 
very similar to that of the Cigar Case Bearer, the habits of the larvae 
differing to a slight extent (Fig. 143 h). 

Adult. — -A minute moth with brownish, heavily fringed wings and 
covered with white scales, head and thorax white; abdomen whitish; 
all parts dotted with brown scales. June- July. 

Eggs. — Cinnamon-rufous; like inverted tea-cups with strongly 
ridged sides; July; egg stage lasts about a week. 

Larv(B. — Never miners; make cases as soon as they begin to eat. 
In September they migrate to twigs where they pass the winter in 
small pistol-shaped cases. In spring they attack the buds and make 
irregular holes in the leaves. About the beginning of June they 
change to pupae. 

Pupa. — Pupal stage lasts about 2 weeks. 

Control. — Spray with arsenate of lead in early spring just before the 
blossoms open and in July. 

TiscHERiiD^ (Leaf Miners) 

Apple Leaf Miner {Tischeria malifoliella Clemens). — The larva 
forms trumpet- shaped blotches under the surface of the leaves. 

Adult. — A minute moth expanding }i inch; wings broadly fringed. 
Fore wings shining dark brown with a purplish tinge; hind wings 
grey; head and antennae dark brown. May. 

Eggs. — Small, greenish-yellow, blister-like, elliptical, J^o i^^h 
long; attached to surface of leaf. Hatch in 8-10 days. 

Larva. — A miner within the leaf; mature in 3 weeks. Larvae 
of last generation hibernate in the fallen leaf. 

Pupa. — Pupa formed within the leaf. Duration 8-10 days. Two 
or three generations each season. 



236 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Lyonktiud/E (Lkaf Skeletonizers) 

Apple Leaf Bucculatrix (BiiccuJatrix pomifoUcUa Clemens). — 
(Consult lUill. 214, Cornell.) Adult. A small moth, '4 inch expanse; 
fore wings whitish tinged with pale yellow and dusky brown. Hind 
wings broadly fringed. Appears when leaves unfold. 

Eggs. — Laid in May, singly on under side of apple leaves; elliptical, 
/GO X M25 inch, greenish, iridescent; surface rough. 

Larva. — One-half inch long, cylindrical, tapering at both ends; 
dark greenish-yellow, with reddish tinge on anterior segments, 
active. Full grown in July. 

Pupa. — Cocoons dirty white, slender, ' | inch long; six ]:)rominent 
longitudinal ridges; oblong, tapering at both ends; fastened to twigs 
in groups, in September-October, etc. Hibernates in this stage. 

Birch Leaf Skeletonizer {Bucculalrix caiiadoisiscUa Chamb.). — A 
serious pest of birches, skeletonizing tlie leaves. 

Adult. — A small brown moth, about j 3 inch long; wings crossed with 
fine white bars. 

Z«rz;a.— Slender, green; head brown; tapering slightly toward both 
ends. 

It spins a small round white moulting cocoon on the twigs or leaf, 
and later spins a yellowish ribbed elongate cocoon within which it 
pupates. 

Control. — By parasites and by spraying with arsenical solution. 

TlNEID/E (TlNEIl'is) 

Clothes Moths. Three injurious species of Clothes Moths are rec- 
ognized in America: 

(i) Case-making Clothes Moth, (2) Webbing or Southern Clothes 
Moth, and (^0 'rai>estry Moth. 

I. Case-making Clothes Moth {Tinea pclUonclla L.). — So-called 
because the larva makes a true transportable case. (Consult Circ. 
36, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

Adult. — A small tineid moth ex])anding '2 inch; head and 
fore wings greyish yellow; hind wings gre}'ish white and silky. 
June- August. 

Eggs. — Minute whitish, ])laced directly on food material; hatch in 
about TO davs. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 237 

Larva. — A dull white calerf)illar with head and upper part of neck 
segment brown; living within its case; feeds on woolens, carpets, furs, 
feathers, etc. 

Pw/>a.— Formed within larval case; duration aljout 3 weeks. One 
generation a year in the North. 

2. Webbing or Southern Clothes Moth {Tineola biselliella Hum.). — 
Two or more broods in the North; more common than the preceding 
in the North. 

Adult. — Fore wings pale ochreous. Female larger than the male; 
lays 40-50 eggs. 

Eggs. — ^Laid among the threads of the cloth; hatch in 7 days. 

Larva. — Constructs no case, but spins a silky cobwebby path 
wherever it goes; full grown in 10 or more weeks. Feeding all months 
of the year on woolens and furs. Not readily poisoned. 

Pupa. — Cocoon stage 2 or more weeks. 

3. Tapestry Moth {Trichophaga tapetzella L.). — Rarer and slightly 
larger than either of the preceding. 

Adult. — Head white, basal half of fore wings black; outer half creamy 
and grey; hind wings pale grey. Expanse % inch. 

Larva. — Burrows in food materials, lining them with silk — no other 
protection than the galleries or burrows it makes. Feeds on carpets, 
horse blankets, tapestries, felting, furs, skins and woolen upholstering 
of carriages. 

Control. — Give clothes or carpets a thorough beating, spray with 
benzine and expose to sun for some hours, and repeat frequently. 

C0SSID.E (Carpenter Moths) 

Leopard Moth (Zeuzera pyrina Linn.). — A serious pest of shade trees 
in the East, especially of elm and maple. A native of the old world. 

Adult. — A white moth with blue and black markings; female much 
larger than male and a feeble flyer. Male with pectinate antennae; 
wings semi-transparent and white with black markings; thorax with 
six large and one small black spot. 

Eggs. — Oval, salmon-colored, deposited either singly or in a large 
mass in crevices of bark; hatch in about 10 days. 

Larva. — White or pinkish, over 2 inches long when full grown; 
numerous dark tubercles with hairs on body; head, thoracic and anal 
shields brown. Bores along the pith, eating the wood at intervals, 



238 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

with an occasional opening for the removal of fras, which is soon closed 
with a web of silk. Both large and small limbs when attacked fre- 
quently break off. Nearly full grown by second winter. 

Pupa. — Formed in the burrow in May of second year. 

Control. — Prune away and burn the smaller injured twigs or 
branches; inject carbon bisulphide into the openings of burrows and 
seal with wax or putty. 

Carpenter or Goat Moth {Prionoxystus rohinice Peck.). — The cater- 
pillar bores into maple, oak, ash, willow and locust trees, often 
producing deformities. 

Adult. — A large moth, wing expanse of female 3 inches, of male 
2 inches. Color dark grey mottled with light grey. Front wings of 
male darker, and hind wings ochre yellow. June and July. 

Eggs. — Oval, Jfo inch long; each female lays several hundred 
eggs; dirty whitish with one end black; finely reticulated, sticky. 
Laid in crevices about injuries. About July ist. 

Larva. — A large white caterpillar suffused with rose red, 23^^ inches 
long; head brownish, jaws prominent and black; thoracic shield dark 
brown in front; each segment with several minute brownish tubercles, 
each bearing a hair; spiracles brownish; a dark-colored dorsal line; 
under side of larva greenish white; bad smelling. 

Pupa. — Brownish, i}/'^ inches long; dorsal surface of abdominal 
segments with rows of tooth-Hke processes. Formed in a loose cocoon 
at ends of galleries. Duration 2 weeks or longer. 

The life-cycle is beUeved to occupy 3 years. 

Control. — Trim away deformities; inject CS2 into borings and close 
holes with putty or cement. 

Nepticulid^ 

Serpentine Leaf Miner {Nepticula pomivorella Pack.). Adult. — A 
minute, purphsh-black tineid moth; head tufted; reddish-yellow; June. 

Larvcs. — Small, dark-green caterpillars Jfo inch long. Make a 
narrow serpentine mine beneath surface of leaves of apple and pear, 
first half of mine broader than second half. In late autumn the larvae 
find their way to twigs by means of silken threads, where they spin 
small oval brown cocoons }i inch long resembHng Lecanium scales. In 
May they transform to pupae. 

Pupa. — Bright green. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 239 

ORDER DIPTERA (FLIES) 

Sub -orders and Groups 

A. Adults without a frontal lunule; pupa and adult escape from larval skin 
through a T-shaped opening at anterior end. — Sub-order Orthorrhapha. 
B. AntenniE long, with more than five joints. — Nematocera Group 
(Fig. 144, A). 
BB. Antennse short, usually 3-jointed; first anal cell narrowed. — Brachycera 
Group. (Fig. 144) 
A A. Adults with a frontal lunule; pupa and adult escape from larval skin 
through a circular opening at anterior end. — Sub-order Cyclorrhapha. 




Fig. 144. — Antennas of common Diptera. A, Xiphuria (Tipulidae). B, 
Sargus (Stratiomyiidae). C. Stratiomyia (Stratiomyiidae). D, Culex (Culicidae). E. 
Tabanus (Tabanidae). F, Leptis (Leptidas). G, Chrysops (Tabanidas). H, Anthrax 
(Bombyliidas). /, Dasyllis (Asilidae). J, Bibio (Bibionidae). A", Gonia (Tach- 
inidce). L, PolUnia (Muscidae). 

Chief Families of the Nematocerous Orthorrhapha: 

A. A distinct V-shaped suture on back of thorax; legs long and slender. 
— Tipulida (Crane Flies) p. 242. 
A A. No V-shaped suture on thorax. 

B. Veins and margin of wings fringed with scales. — Culicidce (Mos- 
quitoes), p. 243. 
BB. Margin of wings not fringed with scales. 

C. Anal veins wanting; Media vein wanting; tibiae without spurs. 
— Cecidomyiidce (Gall Gnats), p. 245. 
CC. Anal veins present and Media vein at least represented by a 
fold. Costal vein does not extend beyond tip of wing. 



240 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



D. Abdomen slender; wings narrow; antennie pulmosc in 
the males; wing veins slrong near costal margin. — Chiro- 
nomidce (Midges), p. 252. 
DD. Abdomen short and thick; wings broad; antenna; short 
and non-plumose. — Simuliida' (Black Flies), p. 251. 
Chief Families of the Brachyccrous Orlhorrhapha (Figs. 146-149); 

A. Antennic of five or more segments, those beyond the second more or less 
united. (Fig. 144, E). 



«2*J 




3d A 

Fig. 145. — Venation of a tipulid 
(Tipula). (After Comstock.) 




Pk;. 146. — Venation of a tabanid 
{Tabanus). {After Comstock.) 



B. Alulcts large, third joint of antenna; without a style or bristle. — 
Tabanid(C (Horse Flies), p. 252. 
BB. Alulets small; branches of Radius crowded together near the costal 
margin. — Slraliomyiidcc (Soldier Flies). 
AA. Antennie of four or live segments but the third joint not ringed. 

B. Antennae long, clavate, 4-jointed; branches of Radius curving toward 
costal margin. — Midaidce (Midas Flies). 





Fig. 147. — Venation of Dixa. (After 
Comstock.) 



Fig. 148. — Venation of an asilid 
(Erax). (After Comstock.) 



AAA. Antennie of three segments; Radius four-branched. 

B. Vertex of head hollowed out between the eyes; palpi present. — 
Asilidce (Robber Flies). 
BB. Vertex of head not hollowed out; alulets small; beak prominent. — 
BomhyUidw (Bee Flies). 
Chief Families of the Cyclorrhapha (Figs. 151 and 152): 

A. Adults non-parasitic; maxillae covered by upper lip; Radius 3-branched. 

B. With a spurious longitudinal vein between Radius and Media; front 
convex between the antenna;. — Syrphidcc (Flower Flies), p. 250. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 241 

BB. With rudimentary ni()uth-[)arts; |)al[)i wanting; antennae with dorsal 
arista. — (Estridce (Hot FHes), p. 254. 
BBB. With well developed mouth-parts; palpi present; head with a suture 
above the antenna;. — Superfamily Muscoldca. 
C. Alulets small; eyes of males not contiguous; thorax without com- 
plete transverse suture. — (Acalyplrale Muscids.) 




R4 i£ Mit^ 



Fig. 149.— Venation of a leptid (Leptis). 
(After Comslock.) 




Fig. 150. — Venation of a syrphid 
{Eristalis) . {After Comstock.) 



D. Subcostal or auxiliary vein ending in the costa and distinctly 

separate from Radius I, or first longitudinal, which usually 

ends near the middle of the wing. Anal cell present. 

E. Oral vibrissas present; front bristly; R. nearly half the 

wing length; cross veins not close together; yellow or 

brown. — Scalophagida (Dung Flies). 



Bz*5 




Fig. 151. — Venation of Thereva. 
{After Comstock.) 



Fig. 152. — Venation of a muscid 
{Musca). {After Comslock.) 



EE. Oral vibrissaj absent; eyes large; first posterior cell (R5) 
closed or narrowed in the margin; proboscis and ovi- 
positor greatly lengthened. — Conopidce (Thick-headed 
Flies). 
DD. Subcostal vein absent, vestigial or incomplete; Radius I 
usually ending in costa before middle of wing. 
E. Discal and basal cells united; Anal cell absent. — Os- 
cinida (Grass Stem Flies), p. 260. 



16 



242 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

EE. Discal and second basal cells separated; anal cell 
complete. 
F. Oral vibrissae present. 

G. Arista long plumose or pectinate above. — 
DrosophiUdce (Pomace Flies), p. 260. 
GG. Arista bare, pubescent or short plumose; 
front bristly as far as middle, usually light 
colored. — Agromyzidce (Leaf-miner Flies), p. 
262. 
FF. Oral vibrissae absent. 

G, Subcostal vein abruptly bent forward before 
the tip of Radius I; anal cell angular. Wings 
pictured. — Trypetida (Fruit Flies), p. 264. 
GG. Subcostal vein more or less fused with Radius 
I; all three basal cells distinct, anal cell not 
produced; antennae more or less elongate and 
decumbent. — Psilida (Rust Flies), p. 262. 
CC. Alulets or calypters large; eyes of males often contiguous; thorax 
with complete transverse suture. — Calyptrate Mtiscids. 
D. Cell Radius 5 closed or more or less narrowed at the margin 
of the wing. 

E. Antennal bristle bare. — Tachinidce (Tachina-flies), p. 278. 
EE. Antennal bristle bare near tip. — Sarcophagidct (Flesh- 
flies). 
EEE. Antennal bristle pubescent or plumose to the tip. 

F. Dorsum of abdomen bristly; legs elongate. — 
DexiidcB. 
FF. Dorsum of abdomen not bristly except at tip. — 
MuscidcB (House-flies), p. 268. 
DD. Cell Radius 5 widely open. — Anthomyiida (Root-maggot flies), 

p. 273. 
AA. Adults parasitic; upper lip enveloped by maxillae as by a sheath. — Pupipara 
(Sheep-ticks, etc.), p. 279. 
(Consult Tech. Series, No. 22, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dep. Ag. on "The Structure 
of Certain Dipterous Larvae, etc.," by N. Banks, 1912) 

TIPULIDiE (CRANE FLIES) 

Meadow Maggots {Crane Flies or Leather Jackets). Adult. — ^Large 
mosquito-like flies with very long thin legs, long slender bodies, 
narrow wings and thread-like antennae. A transverse V-shaped suture 
on the back of middle portion of the thorax (Figs. 145 and 153). 

Larva. — When full grown about an inch long, dirty brown, and 
footless; of a tough leathery texture; cylindrical; tapering in front and 
blunt behind. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 243 

Pupa. — No puparium; occupying small cells near the surface of 
the ground in a vertical position. 

Broods. — There are two broods each season. Larvae winter over 
and change to pupae in late May. Adults soon appear and deposit 
eggs from which hatch the maggots. These change to pupae and 
adults in September when eggs are laid for a fall brood. The maggots 
hatching from these eggs winter over. 

Control. — Early fall plowing, draining, and rotation of crops. 




A 

Fig. 153. — Tipula. A, Larva; B, cast pupal skin; C, imago. Slightly reduced. 

{After Folsom.) 



CULICID^ (MOSQUITOES) 

Key to The Common Genera 

A. Palpi in both sexes at least almost as long as the proboscis. — Anopheles. 
A A. Palpi in both sexes less than one-half as long as the proboscis. — Aedes. 
AAA. Palpi in the male at least nearly as long as the proboscis; in the female less 
than one-half as long. — Culex. 

This family includes several important economic genera, comprising 
many hundreds of species. The more important of these are Culex 
pipiens, C. pungens, Anopheles maculipennis , and Stegomyia fas data = 
Aedes calopus. 

House Mosquito [Culex pipiens Linn.). Adult. — A slender-bodied, 
delicate fly with gauzy wings, the veins bearing minute scales; deep 
yellowish to dark brown; legs and beaks not banded; abdomen with 
narrow whitish bands at the base of each segment. Hibernates as 
adult (Fig. 154). 



244 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Eggs. — ^Laid at night or early morning on the surface of standing 
water in masses of 50 to 400. Hatch in about 24 hours. 

Larva. — ^Large head with a pair of mouth-brushes and a tube at 
opposite end of body for breathing, not over four times as long as broad; 
antennae of moderate length with a branch about the middle, bearing 
a tuft of hairs. Full grown in a week; dirty white, or yellowish. 

Pupa. — A hunched object, floating just below the surface of the 
water. Duration i to 3 days. 

Number of broods limited only by conditions of temperature and 
moisture. 




Fig. 154. — The common house mosquito: a, male; b, female. {U. S. Bur. Ent.) 

Malarial Mosquito {Anopheles maculipennis Meign.). Adult. — 
Differs from Culex in being much larger, more slender and with larger 
legs; wings longer, and more or less spotted with brown or black, and 
carried flat on the back when not in use; palpi or mouth-feelers as long 
as the beak in both sexes. (In Culex the palpi are short in the female.) 
A common malaria carrier. 

Eggs. — ^Laid singly on surface of water; hatch in 24 to 48 hours. 

Larva. — ^Larva Hes flat on surface; tube very short; at first black or 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 245 

grey, usually banded with white; later color harmonizes with sur- 
roundings. Full grown in 7 to 10 days. 

Pupa, — ^Like that of Culex but with shorter, more trumpet-shaped 
breathing tubes; duration about 2 days. 

Other species of Anopheles are: A. punctipennis and A. crucians. 

The Salt Marsh Mosquito (^^^e^^6?//za7aw5Walk.), the Swamp Mos- 
quito {A. syhestris Theo.) and the Irritating Mosquito {Mansonia per- 
turbans Walk.) are commonly met with and are annoying. 

On the western prairies the genus Aedes is most abundant. The 
eggs are laid in late summer and hatch out the following spring in the 
water of the melting snow. There is but one brood a year. The most 
common species are A. spenceri Theob., A. fletcheri Coq., and A. cur- 
riei Coq. 

CECIDOMYIIDiE (GALL MIDGES) 

Hessian Fly (Mayetiola destructor Say). — (Consult Ent. Bull. 11, 
Dep. Ag., Ottawa; Bull. 116, Ont. Dep. Ag.; Cornell Bull. 194; and 




Fig. 155. — The hessian fly {Mayetiola destructor): i, adult female; 2, mature 
larva; 3, puparium or " flax-seed "; 4, seed of flax. Enlarged about 8 times. {After 
Criddle, Ent. Bid. 11, Dep. Agric. Can.) 

bulletins by Webster and Marlatt.) An introduced pest from Europe 
and one of the most serious enemies of growing wheat. Distributed 
over the wheat regions of United States and Canada. Attacks also 
oats, barley, rye, Agropyron spp., Bromus, Elymus and Agrostis (Fig. 

155)- 

Adutt. — A small dusky 2 -winged fly, }<8 inch long, about half the 

size of a common mosquito; the female with a dull reddish tinge and 

larger than ihe male; legs long; wings smoky-black, covered with fine 

black hairs and obscurely fringed. 



246 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Eggs. — Spindle-shaped, reddish and i to 50 inches long; hatch in 4 
to 12 days. 

Larva. — A footless maggot, clear-white except for a greenish stripe 
down the middle; last stage of larva passed in "flax-seed" covering, 
and having a peculiar "breast-bone," a horny forked structure. 

Pupa. — Pupa case deep rich brown, like small "flax-seeds;" pupa 
rosy colored and with a pointed beak. 

Broods. — Two generations in fall wheat regions, and one in spring 
wheat regions. Criddle reports a supplementary summer brood in 
Manitoba, the adults appearing from late June up to middle of August. 
Pupae develop which winter over. Webster (640) is of the opinion 
that the Hessian Fly is two-brooded even in spring wheat sections. 
Female lays a few, to 50 or more, eggs on upper surface of leaf about 
last week in August, first week in September or later, according to 
latitude, altitude and longitude; maggots hatch in about 4 days and 
move down the leaf to the stem where they embed themselves within 
the leaf -sheath. In about 3 weeks they change to "flax-seed" but 
remain as larvae until the following May, when they change to pupae. 
The flies emerge a few days later to lay their eggs for a new spring brood 
on the leaves of spring cereals. The maggot stage lasts until the third 
week in June, and the "flax-seed" stage until the third week in August 
or later, when the flies emerge (Fig. 156). 

Parasitized by Folygnotus, Merisus, Eupelmus, Tetrastichus, and 
Entedon, all Chalcids. 

Control. — ^Late seeding in fall on well prepared seed-bed; trap- 
strips; destruction of all volunteer wheat; destruction of "flax-seeds" 
at threshing; co-operation. Plowing the wheat stubble deeply immedi- 
ately after harvest. (See Part IV). 

Clover Seed Midge (Dasyneura leguminicola Lintner). — (Consult 
Bull. I 34, 111. Agr. Exp. Stn.). A widely distributed pest of red and 
white clover fields. Alsike, mammoth and alfalfa are uninjured. 

Adult. — A minute 2-winged fly, J^-f 2 inch long, with red abdomen and 
long reddish-brown legs and antennae; head and thorax black; wings 
transparent with dusky hairs. April-May and July-August. 

Eggs. — Very minute, orange, smooth and transparent. Laid in 
green flower-heads, hatch in about a week. 

Larva. — A footless orange maggot, Jf ii^^h long, and with nine pairs 
of respiratory tubercles and a sternal spatula. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 247 






^ 
b 

^ 



s 

8 
O 









a 

a 
> 

c! 
o 



o 

Xi 
m 

a 

u 



^ 
^ 



I 





I 



I 




P^ 



248 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Pupa. — Cocoon oval, ^^2 iri^h lon^, made of silk threads; pupa 
pale orange; eyes brown; two short tubercles on front of head. 

Life-history. — There are two broods each year. Eggs are laid in 
May in the forming llower-heads. At the end of June and early July 
(June 20 to |ul\' S in Illinois) the maggots mature and drop to the 
ground to pupate. The adult flies emerge when the second crop of 
clover comes into bloom (July 15-Sept. i) and lay their eggs among the 
blossoms. The maggots leave the ripe heads in autumn, and pass the 
winter in the ground. In May the adult flies emerge to lay their eggs. 
Affected florets do not expand then" ])etals and remain fresh and pink 
until after maggot leaves the bud, eventually fadmg and withermg 
without opening. 

Natural Enemies. — Tetrastic/ius, A nopcdius, Triplileps. 

Cputrol. — Cutting or ])asturing clover before the 20th of June. 

Clover Leaf Midge {Dasyneura trifolii Low.). — A serious pest of 
white clover, affected leaves folding ui)on a midrib with maggots 
enclosed . 

.!</////.- Smaller than the Clover Seed Midge, but very similar in 
color and markings. Abdomen is darker, due to the large dorsal bands 
of black scales. 

Eggs. — Colorless soon becoming orange, cylindrical and slightly 
curved; very minute; several eggs usually placed together between folded 
leallets near the ground. 

Larva.— W\\\{Q at first, orange later; ' 25 inch long. Leailet remains 
folded in half along the midrib. 

Pupa. — Cocoon oval and about ' 15 inch long; pupa orange, with 
blackish eyes and a darker median ventral stripe. 

Life-history. — Probably four broods, each requiring about a month. 

Control- Pasturing or cutting frequently. 

Rose Midge {Dasyneura rhodophaga).- hi\ introduced pest of green- 
house roses and often does serious injury. It is known also as the 
Reinberg Fly by florists. The larvae "feed inside the flower and leaf 
buds, j)reventing and distorting their growth, and soon causing them 
to turn brown and then to blacken and die." Several generations. 

Adult. — A 2-winged fly with long delicate legs; 3 20 ii^^h long. 

Eggs. — Cylindrical; laid at bases of the flower and leaf buds. Hatch 
in 2 days. 

Larva. — One-twelfth inch long and legless; mature in one week; 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 249 

drops to the ground, burrows beneath the surface and spins a 
silken cocoon. 

Pupa, — Pupa within cocoon; duration one week. Hibernates. 

Control. — Frequent fumigation with tobacco to kill the adults. 

Grape Blossom Midge (Contarinia johnsoni Sling.). — A pest in the 
Chatauqua grape belt of New York. 

Adult. — A midge Iff; inch long, with yellowish body and straw 
colored legs. End of May. 

Eggs. — Minute, grey, elongate, curved; about 25 laid in each bud 
which becomes swollen and yellowish and reddish when maggots 
begin to feed. 




Fig. 157. — The wheat midKC {Diplosis Irilici): a, female fly; b, male fly; c, larva. 
Enlarged. {After Marlaie, U . S. Bur. lint.) 



Larva. — Whitish to yellow-orange; Jf 2 inch long; passes the winter 
in a small oval silk-lined earthen cocoon about 6 inches below surface 
of ground. 

Pupa.—¥oxm(t(\ at end of April. 

Control. — Spray with Black Leaf 40 just as buds of early varieties 
begin to open, and again a week later. 

Wheat Midge {Diplosis = Contarinia, tritici Kirby). — A European 
pest, destructive to wheat, introduced probably by way of the Province 
of Quebec (Fig. 157). 

Adult. — A minute orange-yellow fly Jf inch long, smoky-tinged on 
the back above the wings. June-August. 



250 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Eggs. — Minute, cylindrical, pale red; laid singly or in clusters in 
crevices of wheat heads in June and hatch in about a week. 

Larva. — A short oval orange-yellow maggot, Jf 2 inch long; as a 
rule it leaves the head after feeding for 3 or 4 weeks and goes into the 
ground where it remains in a mustard-seed-like cocoon. 

Fupa. — Pupa case small, about the size of a mustard seed, in the 
ground; formed in June shortly before the emergence of the adult. 

Broods. — At the end of June the adult flies lay their eggs in the 
crevices of the wheat head; the eggs hatch in about a week, and the 
larvae feed on the milky juices of the developing kernels for about 3 
or 4 weeks; some descend to the ground where they form minute 
puparia which remam until the following June; others remam and are 
carried out m the screenings at threshing time. Only one brood a 
year. 

Control. — Burn or feed screenings; plow stubble deeply after harvest; 
rotation of crops; sow wheat early. Dry weather unfavorable and 
moist weather favorable for the development of the insect. 

SYRPHIDiE (SYRPHIDS OR FLOWER FLIES) 

The Syrphids or Flower Flies are most valuable enemies of many 
injurious forms of insects. They are usually bright colored and they 
feed upon the pollen and nectar of flowers. Their maggots are often 
found in colonies of plant-lice, upon which they feed. Some syrphid 
larvae live in filth and are known as "rat-tailed maggots." 

C. L. Metcalf (''Syrphidae of Maine," Bull. 253) notes five types of 
Syrphid larvae: 

1. The Aphidophagous type with body narrowed anteriorly, sub- 
cylindrical and flattened ventrally {Allograpta and Syrphus); 

2. The boring type, with body nearly cylindrical (Merodon). 

3. The short-tailed filth-inhabiting type (Syritta). 

4. The rat-tailed filth-inhabiting type (Eristalis). 

5. The Microdon type, with body hemispherical in form. 
Aphid-feeding species are Syrphus americanus, Allograpta obliqua, 

Sphceropnoria cylindrica, Didea fas data, S. stanthostomus (Fig. 150). 

The following genera live, in larval condition, in decaying vegetable 
or animal matter: Eristalis, Platychirius, Orthoneura, Criorhina, 
Syritta. (Consult ''Syrphidae of Ohio" and ''Syrphidae of Maine" by 
Metcalf.) 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 25 1 

A few forms are injurious in the larval stage. The Corn-feeding 
Syrphid Fly {Mesogramma politus) feeds on pollen grains and at the 
axils of the leaves of corn, producing a wilting and browning of the 
lower leaves. It has been reported from several states. 

Merodon equestris and Eumerus strigatus are pests of the onion, 
narcissus and amarylHs. The larvae burrow into the bulbs. 

Certain species, Eristalis spp., produce myiasis in man and some 
of the domestic animals. The eggs are laid, singly or in masses, on or 
near the food upon which the larvae feed, the exact location and number 
depending upon the habits of the species. "They are chalk- white, 
shiny, elongate-ovate or subcyHndrical with rounded ends, J^5 inch 
long and }y^^ inch wide. Under the microscope each egg may be seen 
to be delicately and beautifully sculptured " 

The larvae vary also according to the habits of the species. They 
are "headless, footless, blind creeping maggots." They breathe by 
spiracles near the fore and hind ends of the body. They are 3^^ inch 
long when full grown. 

Narcissus Fly {Merodon equestris F.). — A ser'ous pest of narcissus 
and daffodil bulbs in British Columbia. 

Adult. — A fly resembling the house-fly; March-September, most 
common in May, when it begins to breed. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in the centre of crown at surface of the ground. 

Larva. — Found in centre of bulb which is often destroyed. Leaves 
bulb in February and pupates 3-^ inch below the surface of the ground. 
Three-fourth to i inch length. 

SIMULIID^ (BLACK FLIES, BUFFALO GNATS, TURKEY GNATS) 

Several species of Simulium are very troublesome pests in our 
northern woods, occurring in immense numbers in the vicinity of 
running water. The females have well developed piercing and sucking 
mouth-parts and their punctures are painful, with effusion of blood. 
Black Flies have stout black humped bodies and are small, not more 
than 3^ inch in length. They are most numerous in early spring and 
are considered by travellers worse pests than mosquitoes. They are 
active in the day-time, especially in bright sunshine. 

The eggs are laid in patches on stones or other objects under running 
water. The larvae are aquatic and gregarious; they are long and slender, 



252 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

more or less cylindrical in shape, provided at the posterior end with a 
disk-like sucker fringed with hooks wherewith they attach themselves 
to the rocks. At the anterior end are two fan-shaped organs for secur- 
ing food, and behind these on the ventral side is another sucker. The 
pupa is formed within a boot-shaped cocoon, and is provided with two 
tufts of respiratory filaments on the thorax. 

As a rule there are two or three broods in a season. The most 
abundant species in the northeast are Simulium venustum, S. vittatum 
and S. hirtipes, on the western Canadian prairies S. similis Mall. 
S. pictipes is innoxious. 

Control. — Smudges and fumes of pyrethrum as repellents; destruc- 
tion of larvse by phinotas oil. 

CHIRONOMIDiE (MIDGES) 

(Ceratopogon spp. (Funkies). — These minute flies, known as "pun- 
kies," ''no-see-ums" and ' 'sand-flies," are also very troublesome pests in 
northern woods. They are blood-suckers and attack any exposed 
part of the body. The larvae are thread-like and live in water or 
in moist places. Dr. Riley states that the following species bite: 
Culicoides guttipennis, the most common form; C. cindus, C. sanguisuga, 
C. stellifer, C. variipennis, and C. iinicolor. Not much, however, 
is known regarding the habits of the different species. 

TABANIDJE (HORSE FLIES, BULLDOGS, CLEGS, BREEZE FLIES) 

Common Genera: 

A. Hind tibije with spurs at tip; third segment of the antennae with five rings; 
second segment but little shorter than the first ; wings with dark markings. 
— Chrysops. 
A A. Hind tibiae without spurs; third segment of the antennae with a well- 
developed process. — Tabanus. 

(Consult "Tabanidae of Ohio" by Hine) 

Black Horse Fly {Tabanus atratus Fab.). Adult. — A large fly with 
broad and slightly flattened body and large and depressed head; last 
segment of antennae annulate and without stylet; females with power- 
ful piercing mouth-parts (see p. 8); may transmit disease (Fig. 158). 

Eggs. — Elongate, spindle-shaped; laid in large black masses of 500 
on the leaves of grasses, sedges and other plants in marshy ground. 
Hatch in less than 9 days. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 253 

Larva. — ^Lives in the soil, mud or water; cylindrical, tapering, 
2 inches long when full grown; yellowish-white with wide dark brown 
bands at union of each two segments; prothorax with 2 lateral grooves 
on each side; mesothorax with 4 longitudinal grooves on each side; 
metathorax and abdominal segments like mesothorax. Carnivorous. 
Hibernates (Fig. 159). 

Pupa. — The pupal stage lasts only a few days; i}^ inches long; 
brownish yellow; lives beneath surface of the soil. 





Fig. 158. — The black gad fly. Enlarged. 
{After Carman.) 



Fig. 159. — The larva or 
grub of the black gad fly. 
(After German.) 



Treatment. — Protect work horses with fly-nets; smearing ears, with a 
repellent solution composed of pine tar i gal., fish oil or crude carboHc 
acid I qt., powdered sulphur, 2 lb. 

On the western plains horse flies are very troublesome pests. The 
most common forms are T. septentrionalis Loew, T. illotus O. S.,_r. 
hirtuliis Bigot, Chrysops mcerens Walk., and C. fulvaster O. S. 



254 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



(ESTRID^ (BOT FLIES) 

Common Genera and Species: 

A. Costal vein ends at tip of R4-1.5, M1+2 is straight not reaching the margin, 
and cell R5 wide open; squamae small, arista bare; ovipositor elongate. — 
Gastrophilus (Fig. 160). 
B. Wings with spots and smoky median cross band. — G. intestinalis. 



Rz*3 



R<*s 




4+S 



Cu, + Ms 



Fig. 160. — Venation of wings of horse bot flies {Gastrophilus). i, G. intestinalis; 
2, G. nasalis; 3, G. hoemorrhoidalis. 

BB. Wings without spots. 

C. Posterior cross- veins (M-Cu) beyond the anterior cross- vein 
(r-m); legs blackish brown. — G. Jimnorrhoidalis. 
CC. Posterior cross-vein opposite and nearer than the anterior cross- 
vein. — G. nasalis. 
AA, Costal vein ends at tip of M1+2; Mn.2 with a bend; cell Rs much narrowed 
or closed. 
B. Facial grooves approximated below; cell Rs closed and petiolate. — 
(Estrus. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 255 

BB. Facial grooves far apart; squamae large, ovipositor elongate. — Hy- 
poderma (Fig. 161). 
C. Prothoracic band of yellow hairs, mesothoracic band of brownish 
black hairs; media 3 sinuate; legs black with black hair; tips of 
hind tibiae and tarsi yellowish-brown. — H. hovis. 
CC. Thoracic band of hairs brownish; media 3 rounded; tibiae and 
tarsi yellow; femora black. — //. lineatum. 



Fig. 161. — Venation 




of warble 
H. bovis. 



Hypoderma lineatum; 2, 



Warble Flies 

The Striped Warble Fly {Hypoderma lineatum Villers). — (Consult 
Bull. 5, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; Bull. 48, Minn. Agr. Exp. St.; Ont. 
Ent. Soc. Rep., 1915; Que. Soc. Prot. Plants, 1918.) Causes much 
loss to flesh and hides, and in lessened milk yield. Introduced from 
Europe. 

Adult. — A hairy fly resembling a dark-colored bee; J^ inch long, 
with yellowish- white hairs; abdomen banded above with black and 
whitish stripes and terminated at apex with reddish-yellow hairs; 
thorax with four lines often seem as white by reflected light. Mouth- 
parts rudimentary and ovipositor blunt. Tibiae and tarsi yellow, 
femora black. June-July (Fig. 162). 

Eggs. — Attached in spring and summer to hairs of cattle by a 



256 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



peculiar clasping base, often several to a hair; 3>^5 inch long; dull 
yellowish- white; narrow; ovoid. 

Larva. — Dr. Cooper Curtice of Washington believed that the eggs 
were licked into the mouth and the maggots bored through the wall of 
the oesophagus, whence they gradually made their way to the tissues 
along the back, causing warbles. 

Miss Ormerod, of England, on the other hand maintained the 
popular belief that the eggs were laid on the back, but Carpenter 
of Ireland, and more lately Dr. Hadwen of Canada, have proven fairly 




Pig. 162. — The striped warble fly {Hypoderma lineatmn). Enlarged. {After 

Hadwen.) 



conclusively that the eggs may be laid on almost any part of the 
body of the animal, and that the maggots bore into the skin where 
lesions and swellings are produced. They finally make their way to 
the back where the warbles are formed. 

Full grown maggots are greyish-white and nearly an inch long. 
When mature they make their way out through the minute opening, 
drop to the ground and bore an inch or so below the surface, where they 
change to pupae. Four stages of larva; duration 9-10 months. 

Pupa. — Puparium dark brown. Duration 3-6 weeks. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 257 

The Ox Warble Fly {Hypoderma bovis DeG.).— This bot-fly is also 
European and is found in several provinces of Canada and in several 
states. It is more dreaded by cattle than lineatum, and causes much 
panic due largely to the insect's persistence and manner of egg-laying. 
More robust than H. lineatum. Body hairs yellow, except those on 
scutellum and base of abdomen which are yellowish-white, and at apex 




Fig. 163. — The ox warble fly {Hypoderma bovis). Enlarged. {After Hadwen.) 



of abdomen which are bright lemon yellow (see Table given above 
for structural differences between hovis and lineatum) (Fig. i63)<. 

The adults of H. hovis appeared in B. C. from May 31st to August 
2d as extremes (Hadwen). Carpenter says that most of the maggots 
emerged from May 2 7 th to June 1 7 th. The pupal period has an average 
duration of about 35 days varying according to temperature. One 
egg is laid at a time, often when the cattle are running, besides not 

17 



258 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



SO many laid about the hoof as with lineatum. SwelHng is more rounded 
and more raised than that of lineatum j and exudes less serum. 

Control. — When practicable dip every lo days and treat the larvae 
with arsenic. Remove the larva from the warble in spring. 

Larvae of a species of Hypoderma have been obtained from the 
backs of horses. 

BoT Flies 

These flies are probably of European origin but little is known 
of their introduction. 

Horse Bot Fly {Gastrophilus intestinalis DeG. = equi Fab.). Adult, 
— A large brownish hairy bee-like fly, % inch long; head brown with 











1 



Fig. 164. — Larvae of horse bot flies: i, G. hoemorrholdalis; 2, G. intestinalis; 3, G. 
nasalis. (After Dove, Bur. Ent., U. S.) 

three rows of black spots; wings with dark spots or bands; abdomen brown 
with spots and conical. July-August. 

Eggs. — Yellow, conical, attached by female without alighting to 
hairs of fore-legs, shoulders and under side of body; Jf g inch long; 
hatch most readily lo to 15 days after deposition, with the aid of 
warmth, friction and moisture. 

Larva. — ^Licked into the mouth of the horse, thence into the stomach, 
where it attaches itself to the wall. Remains in stomach 8-10 months. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 259 

In spring it escapes in the droppings to the ground and bores an inch 
or two below the surface where it pupates (Fig. 164). 

Pupa. — Duration 30-40 days. 

Chin or Nose Flies {p. nasalis Linn. andG. hcBmorrhoidalis Linn.). — 
These flies are a serious annoyance to horses in the West. They have 
bands of whitish, black and orange-red on the abdomen. 

The eggs of G. nasalis are yellowish; laid on the hairs of the throat. 

Parker (191 6) records the egg-laying of G. hcemorrhoidalis, the red- 
tailed bot fly. The egg is black, barnacle-like and stalked, and is in- 




FiG. 165. — An effective leather fringe device to protect horses from the nose and 

red-tailed bot flies. {After Dove.) 



serted on the hairs of the lip and nostrils by the stalk. The "striking" 
of the fly causes a sharp pain and excites a nervous uncontrollable 
fear in the horse. 

Control. — Administer three or four 4-oz. doses of turpentine, 
followed finally by an ounce of powdered aloes; stable horses in day 
time; groom carefully so as to kill or remove the eggs; use fly-nets of 
loosely dangling cords for G. equi, and wire-screen muzzles, leather 
nosebands cut into narrow strips or provided with canvas flaps for 
G. nasalis and hcBmorrhoidalis (Fig. 165). 



26o ji:co:N()Mi(" iin roMoi.ocY 

Sheep Bot Fly ((Ksirus ovis Linn.). Ad nil. A dull-yellow lly a liHK" 
lar^iT (Ikiii IIu- lloiisc-lly and covered with niiiuile s|)ols; alxlonien 
wilh live rin^s, velvety and varie^jjated with daik-hrowii and straw 
color. Antenna' small; eyt's purplish-hrown; ocelli three on top of head; 
no tnoiith; win^^s Iransparenl extendiii}^ beyond body ;alulels large cover- 
iiij^f the poisers. June August. 

Egl^s. — Deposited in nostrils of slieep; hatch ahiiost at once. 

A^/rM— Maggot works its way up the nasal passages until it readies 
the frontal sinuses, the cavities between and above the eyes. There 
it attaclies itself and feeds on (he nuu us present. Young is creamy- 
while, with two brown spots, spiracles on last segment ; full grown mag- 
got darker, |)arlicularly |)osleriorly ; two small hooks on head; small 
rounded si)ots on sides of each segment. When mature, maggot i)asses 
down the nasal passages and falls to (he ground, which it enters 
to i)upale. 

Pupa. I'uparium smooth, hard, and black, tapermg toward 
head; duration 40 50 days. 

Control.— ~A\)\)\\ tar to llu> nose; furnish a shed for the sheep or a 
plot of plovvi'd or dust\' ground. 

DROSOPHILIDiE (POMACE FLIES) 

Pomace Fly {Drosophila (impclop/iila Loew.). 'Phis small lly breeds 
in decaying or over-ripe fruit, and is a common pest about fruit-stores. 
It is also susi)ected of being a t\i)hoid transmitter. The adult is a 
small light brown lly with bright-red eyes; the maggot is white and 
about '1 inch long; the pui)a is yellow or brown with two long horn- 
like breathing tubes at anterior end. The front tarsus of the male 
has a comb of black si)ines on its upi)er side near the tip. 

OSCINID^ (GRASS STEM MAGGOTS) 

Wheat Stem Maggot (/l/<T(^;;/yc</ amcr'muui iMtch). — (Consult Bull. 
42, Hur. luit., U. S. Dep. Ag.) Adult. — A slender ll\ ; yellowish-green, 
Yf^ inch long, with ,^ dark stripes running down the back; femora of 
last pair of legs abnormally develo|)ed; eyes golden-green (i'ig. 166). 

Eggs. — About '40 >'^^^^ l*'ii^'' 'i'^<l glistening white. 

Larva. — A watery-green footless maggot, ! .4 inch long, ta[)ering to- 
ward front end and broader posteriorly. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCR II'I'ION OF COMMON INSKCTS 26 r 



Pupa. — Pu[)a-aise translucent pale green; pupa greenish and % inch 
long. 

7^r^w/.v.- Probably three generations occur each season. The 
eggs are laid in September October on fall wheat. The maggols 
eat down into the stem where they remain all winter. In early spring 
they assume the pupal stage, and about the first of June the adult 
flies ap[)ear. This brood matures 
about August ist, when flies again 
appear. This third generation ma- 
tures at the iir\i\ of Sej)tember and 
the beginning of October, when the 
adult flies escape to lay their eggs. 
Besides wheat, rye, barley, and 
oats, this insect attacks timothy, 
couch grass, Rlymus, Poa^ and 
green foxtail. 

Control. — -Grain stacked or 
threshed; straw stacked or burned; 
burning of stubble when practicable. 

Meromyza ni^riventris Macq. 
and Cerodonlha femoralis Meig. 
have been recorded as doing injury 
in Montana. 

American Grass Stem Maggot 
{Oscinis carbonariahoew .) . Adult. — 
A black or yellowish fly, resembling 
a minute house-fly, |f 5 inch long. 

Larva. — A yellowish- wh i te 

slender maggot with two distinct p,^^ x66.-Thc wheat stem maKKol: 

hook-like jaws and two knob-like «. adult; b, maggot; c, pupa; d, pupa 

.11. i r^i within the stem; c, parasite. (After 

processes on the last segment of the / „„„g^ . . • i 

body; j/f 2 J^ch long. 

Pupa. F*upa-case cigar-sha[)erl and j)ale chestnut brown. 

Broods. Similar in life-history to Wheat Stem Maggot. The 
larva destroys the centre of the young shoot at the ground in the 
autumn. 

Other Species. — 0. coxendix T^oivv. and O. dorsala Loew. occur on 
prairie grasses, sometimes very abundant. 




262 ECONOMIC 1;N roMOLOGY 

0>;//rf)/.--Siiiiimci-falI()w ^rass lands; prevent volunteer growth 
in aiitiinin. 

PSlLIDiE (RUST FLIES) 

Carrot Rust Fly {I\sil(i roscr Fab.). — This fly is a native of Europe, 
and (he larva frc(|ncMi(ly docs considerable injury to the roots of 
carrols, celery and ])arsnii)s. 

Adii/ir One-six ill imh lonu:, dark green, sparsely clothed with yellow 
iiairs; eyes black, and head and legs ])ale yellow. 

7'J/,'i,'.v.- Deposited by female about roots of host through cracks 
in (he ground. 

Lonm. — Maggot dark brown, '^ fo inch long, slender, truncate 
al ])osterior end; segments well marked, head small. 

7*///>(/.- ru])arium dark brown; anterior segment obli(iuely trun- 
cate; \^ incli long; puj)ation in the earlh. 

Life-history. — (Consult Fletcher's Reports and Bull. ^^^^, V. S. Div. 
Ent.) Winters as larva or pupa; adults appear early in the season; 
summer generations devclo]> in 3 or 4 weeks (Curtis); both flies 
and maggots found throughout the warmer months; number of broods 
uncertain. 

Control. Spra\' the carrots four or fi\e times at intervals of a week 
or (en days with keiosene emulsion, (he fust a])])lication at the time 
of dunning; spread the earth in which carrots have been stored in the 
poultry yard; sow late and practice rotation of crops. 

AGROMYZIDiE (LEAF MINER FLIES) 

Marguerite Fly {Phytomyza chrysanthcml Kowz.). — (Mass. Agricul- 
tural Isxperiment Station, Hull. 157.) Attacks comj)ositous plants 
and is especially injurious in the greenhouse. Occurs in the Northern 
States, and has done considerable injury in B. C. 

.[diilt. — A small greyish fly V12 ii^^'^^ h)ng, with a yellow stri})e on 
eaih side of abdomen; face yellow; antennae black; legs black with 
>ellow markings; rather inactive. Average length of generation about 
3^^ days; several generations a season in greenhouse. 

7^'.i,'.v. - Laid singly in incisions between llesh and skin of leaf. 
Hatch in 5 days. 

Larva. — Burrows in the leaf, producing irregular whitish lines or 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 263 

patches, often causing withering, also preventing flowering or reducing 
the number of blossonas. Matures in about 17 days. 

Pupa. — Formed in larval mine. This stage lasts about 14 days; 
puparia dark brown. 

Control. — A solution of Black Leaf 40 and Soap applied at intervals 
of 10 or 12 days, as soon as first signs of operation of the insect. 

Asparagus Miner (A^romyza simplex Loew.). — (Consult Bull, 66, 
Part I, U. S. Bur. Ent.) Injures asparagus stalks, the maggot 
mining beneath the epidermis, sometimes girdling the stem. 

Adult. — A black two- winged fly; eyes and head prominent; wings 
clear with },{^ inch expanse. Probably two generations, June and 
August. 

E^gs. — White; deposited just beneath epidermis of stalk. 

Larva. — Milk-white; 3^ inch long; footless, truncate posteriorly 
and tapering anteriorly. 

Pupa. — Puparium flax-seed-like, red, 3-^ inch long; attached to slits 
in epidermis of asparagus stalk near ground. 

Control. — Pull up and burn infested stalks in spring; destroy 
volunteer trap plants in late June. 

Com or Spike-homed Leaf Miner {Cerodonta dorsalis Loew.). — 
(Consult Bull. 432, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.) This leaf-miner 
has a wide distribution in the U. S. and feeds on a wide range of 
cereal and grass plants. Three generations at least in Indiana. 

Adult. — One-twelfth to j^fo ii^ch long; proboscis, palpi, front, 
antennae, legs, mesonotum and abdomen mostly yellow. Punctures the 
leaves, in some of which an egg is laid. May in Indiana, but active 
throughout the year in Pasadena, Cal. 

Eggs. — Elongate, kidney-shaped, rounded at each end. Color 
opaque white; 3-^o ii^ch long. Hatch in 3-12 days. 

Larva. — Dirty- white; % inch long; slender, nearly cylindrical; 
mouth-hooks black; body segments plain; posterior ends truncate; 
mines in the leaves and stem of host plant, frequently killing the parts 
affected. Full grown in 9-24 days. 

Pupa. — White at flrst, turning yellow and dark later. Duration 
9-24 days. Hibernates (in Indiana). 

Control. — (i) Summer fallowing, (2) fall plowing, (3) burning dry 
grasses along fence lines, roadsides, etc. in late fall and early spring. 



264 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

TRYPETIDiE (FRUIT FLIES) 

Common Genera (after Williston) : 

A. Bristle on each side of front with a terminal leaf-like appendage. — Ceratitis. 
A A. Front without such bristles; wings with colored markings not reticulate; 
scutellum not with six bristles; fourth longitudinal vein not conspicuously 
curved forward at its extremity. 
B. Distal portion of wings marked with two hyaline indentations. Sepa- 
rated by a curved or arched brown projection from the brown oblique 
cross-band; body short; abdomen as broad as thorax; antepenultimate 
section of fourth vein curved. — Epochra. 
BB. Wings not marked as in B. 

C. Coloring of body generally light, never black; cross-bands on 
wings nearly transverse; cross-veins but little oblique. — Trypeta. 
CC. Coloring of body black; wings with four very oblique black cross- 
bands; cross- veins not approximated; scutellum with 4 bristles, 
yellow. — Rhagoletis. 

Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.). — (Consult Circ. 
160, U. S. Div. Entomology.) Probably a native of the East Indies. 
The appearance of this destructive insect in Hawaii has alarmed the 
fruit-growers of the Pacific coast, and quarantine restrictions have been 
enforced. It already occurs in Africa, Europe and Asia, in Australia 
and in Brazil, and attacks nearly all kinds of fruits. 

Adult. — An active fly about size of house-fly, ochre yellow color; 
eyes reddish purple; a blackish blotch in centre of forehead where two 
stout black bristles arise; thickened basal antennal joints yellow, 
terminal segments black; dorsum of thorax convex, yellowish- white 
marbled with shiny black blotches. Wings broad and semi-opaque 
with extreme base blotched with ochreous or brownish yellow, the rest 
of the basal area marked with black; beyond a broad, irregular, trans- 
verse ochreous band blotched at extremity; another similar blotch 
inside of costal vein. 

Abdomen oval, with fine scattered bristles on upper surface, and 
two rather broad transverse silvery white bands on basal half. Num- 
ber of broods depends on temperature and food supply. 

Eggs. — Glistening white eggs placed beneath skin of ripe fruit 
by sharp extensile ovipositor. Eggs not all deposited at once. 

Larvce. — Begin feeding at once on the pulp, when mature (2-3 
weeks) they leave the fruit and enter the ground, changing to puparia. 

Pupa. — Duration 12-21 days. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 265 

Control. — Cleaning up and destruction of all fallen fruits; covering 
trees with netting; using a poison bait spray (Berlese and Mally). 

Currant Fruit Fly {Epochra canadensis Loew.). — (Consult Bull. 
264, Maine Agr. Expt. St.) A common pest on currants and 
gooseberries in Canada and the Northern States, and confined to the 
Canadian, Transition and Upper Austral zones. 

Adult. — Pale yellowish, slightly smaller and more delicate than the 
house fly; eyes green, legs yellow, wings cross-banded; active and 
restless. May and June. Mating period 33 days; preoviposition 
period 6-10 days. One brood a year. 

Eggs. — Elongate, oval, whitish, }y<25 J^ich long; placed under skin 
of fruit by long ovipositor. Female may lay about 200 eggs. Hatch 
in 4-7 days. 

Larva. — Burrows within the fruit, destroying seeds and kernel. 
Infested berries show discolored spots, become deformed and usually 
fall early. Matures in 3 weeks; J^ 
inch long, white with black mouth- 
parts. Leaves the fruit and enters 
the ground to pupate. 

Pupa. — Puparium broadly oval 
and straw colored, in the ground. 
Hibernates. Duration lo-ii 
months. 

Control— KWo^ poultry to run , ^^c- l^l'-^ ^^^fJ^ white-banded 

^ •' cherry fruit fly. Much enlarged. 

among the bushes to pick up fallen {After Caesar.) 

infested fruit; spray bushes with a 

sweetened poison of sodium arsenite and diluted molasses to kill adult 

flies at intervals of a week beginning early in May. A heroic but 

effectual method is to pick entire crop of fruit and destroy it before 

the maggots emerge. 

White-banded Cherry Fruit Fly (Rhagoletis cingulata Loew.). 
Adult. — A small blackish fly, smaller than the House-fly, % inch 
long, expanding ^^ inch; pale yellow spot on hinder part of thorax 
and a yellowish stripe along each side of thorax; head yellow, eyes 
gold-green; legs yellow, abdomen crossed with 3 or 4 white bands. 
Wings with four brown cross bands, and a black spot at tip. June 
(Fig. 167). 

^^Z^' — Egg-laying begins about 11 days after emergence of flies. 




266 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 




Eggs inserted under the skin of cherries; small, glistening white; ellip- 
tical; hatch in about 5 days. 

Larva. — One-fourth inch long, white or cream-colored, cylindrical, 
tapering. Twelve to 22 days in fruit; destroys the pulp. Leaves the 
cherry when full grown. 

Pupa. — Puparium formed just beneath the surface of the ground; 
brown; hibernates. 

Black -bodied Cherry Fruit Fly {Rhagoletis fausta O. S.). — (Consult 
Bull. 227, O. A. C, 1915.) Adult. — Larger than preceding; black with- 
out white cross-bands on the abdo- 
men; head, eyes and legs similar to 
those of cingulata but bands on wings 
darker and differently arranged (Fig. 
168). 

Eggs and Larvce. — Similar to 
those of cingulata. 

Pupa. — Puparium cream or straw 
colored. 

Control. — Spraying with sweet- 
ened arsenate of lead solution (2 
to 3 lb. arsenate of lead (paste), 40 gal. of water and i gal. of 
cheap molasses) when the flies begin to emerge about June loth, and 
again 10 to 12 days later. 

Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm (Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh). — 
(Consult Rep. Maine Ag. Exp. St., 1889; Cir. loi. Bureau of Ent., 
U. S. Dep. Agr.; Bull. 171, N. H. Ag. Exp. St.; Bull. 324, Cornell Ag. 
Exp. St.; U. S. Dep. Ag., Bull. 9.) This maggot is a serious pest 
of apples in N. E. districts. It is probably a native species, and 
occurs widely in both the United States and Canada on apple, crab- 
apple, haw, and huckleberry. Perhaps most common on sweet and 
sub-acid varieties of apple. 

Adult. — A small fly, a little smaller than the house-fly; blackish, 
with yellow head and legs; eyes green; 3-4 white bands (3 in male 
and 4 in female) across the abdomen; wings marked by four dark irreg- 
ular bands. July and later, each female capable of laying 300-400 
eggs; uses sharp ovipositor to puncture the skin of the fruit. Pre- 
oviposition period may be as short as one week or less, but usually 
longer than a week (Fig. 169). 



Fig. 168. — A female black-bodied 

cherry fruit fly. Much enlarged. 
{After Caesar.) 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 267 

Eggs. — Elliptical, yellowish, pedicellate, J'30 ^^^^ lo^^g) l^-id singly 
just under the skin of the apple; hatch in 4-10 days. 

Larva. — A small plump white legless maggot, J^ inch long; mouth- 
parts with a pair of small black rasping hooks; caudal end truncate; 




Fig. 169. — A female of the apple maggot fly {Rhagoletis pomonella). 

(After W. H. Brillain.) 



M uch enlarged. 



makes soft discolored trails and corky strands in the pulp; full grown 
in 4-6 weeks, or when the infested fruit is ripe. Infested apple usually 
falls, and larvae leave the fruit i to 4 weeks later to enter the ground 
(Fig. 170). 




Fig. 170. 



-A parasite of the apple maggot {Biosleres rhagolelis) . 
W. H. Brillain.) 



Enlarged. {After 



Pupa. — Puparium just beneath the surface of the ground in which 
the pupa rests all winter, and in some cases the following year. Some 
flies emerge in September from early pupae. 



268 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Life-history. — Hibernates as pupa in the ground; adults begin to 
emerge in July, and appear irregularly later; maggots hatching from 
the eggs tunnel in the flesh of the fruit, sometimes close to the surface. 
They mature in 4-6 weeks, and make their way out of the apple to 
the ground, the time (i to 4 weeks) depending on variety of apple 
— a short time (3 days) in early apples. Infested fruit usually falls. 
There is but one generation each year. '' Some forms require an extra 
year for the pupal stage" (O'Kane). 

Control. — Apply arsenical or poison-bait spray in early July for 
adults; collect fallen apples; allow hogs the run of the orchard. 

Records 



Locality 


Emergence 
of adults 


Oviposition 


Larval 
period 


Second brood 
adults 


Authority 


Ithaca. N. Y. . . 
Durham, N. H.. 


June IS 

1910, July 9 

1911, June 26 

1912, June 28 

1913, July 10 
1912, July 6- 

Aug. 20 
i9iS,July 27 

—Sept. 29 
1916, July 18 

-Sept. 18 


July 4 

July 4- Sept. 18 

July 20 

July 27-Sept. II 
July 25-Sept. 12 


July 4 

(12-32 days) 
30 days 

more or less 


Some flies emerge 
in Sept. 

None 


Illingworth 
O'Kane. 

Ross 


Ont. 
Windsor. N. S... 


4 weeks + 


None 


Brittain 



MUSCIDiE (MUSCIDS) 

Common Genera (Figs. 171 and 172): 

A. Proboscis long, slenc^er, directed forward, adapted for piercing; arista 
pectinate (rays on one side only). 

B. Palpi nearly as lohg as proboscis. — Hamatohia (Lyperosia). 
BB. Palpi much shorter than proboscis. — Stomoxys. 
A A. Proboscis not elongate; labclla fleshy and not adapted for piercing. 

B. Arista plumose; hypopleura? with a vertical row of bristles; eyes bare; 
vibrissal angle distant and above oral margin. 
C. Thorax and abdomen with depressed yellow woolly hairs among 
the bristles; sternopleurals arranged i : i. — Pollenia. 
CC. Thorax and abdomen without such hairs; sternopleurals arranged 
2:1; mesonotum distinctly striped; bright metallic. — Chryso- 
myia. 
BB. Arista plumose; hypopleurae without a row or tuft of bristles. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 269 



C. Last section of fourth vein (Mi+j) with a rounded angle.— 
M usca. 
CC. Last section of fourth vein curved forwarrl, often sh'ghtly, beyond 



J^nf 6as,e 



~» — - — • 


^Transverse 
suture , ^ 


a. idc. 


...pj^s.. ._ 


e.dc 

» -• — 


V....e-^9. 



:m 






ta 

— • — 

sa. 



•Oce/far 



u^q. 



idc anterior dorso centrals 
.idc ■■ inner •• 
ia 'intraalar 
h liumerals 
p.h post " 

:>cace//um )p(jQ posterior dor^so centrals 
''pidc ■' inner •• 
i.a. intraalar 
pra prealar = anterior sa 
sa supra alar 
- AL ower squama. = 
'^^'Xsquamula thoracal is 

I sa.-'l^^^^^ squama, = 
■ ^{squamula a/aris 



Vertical 
-Ocelli 




Ybltals 



-Antenna 
y/drissal ridges 
Oral margin 

Vibrissa 
_ Palpus 
■Proboscis 



Fig. 171. — Dorsal aspects of the thorax, and frontal aspect of the head of a 
muscoidean fly, with designations of the parts commonly used in taxonomic work 
(.After Riley and Johannsen, Comslock Pub. Co., Ithaca, N. Y.) 

its middle or at the tip, the cell broadly open; the first longitudinal 
vein (Ri) ending beyond the middle of the wing.—Muscina. 
BBB. Arista plumose; hypopleuraj and eyes as in B; vibrissal angle near 
oral margin. 



270 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



('. Mc'SoMoliini llatLciicd bcluiul Llic Iransvcrsc suture; posterior dor- 
socTiilral and acrostichal bristles inconstant and uncfjually 
developed. — riwrniia. 
CC. Mesonotum not llattcncd l)eliind tlie transverse suture; posterior 
dorsocentral and acrostichal bristles well developed and constant. 
J). Cheeks hairy; third lonj?i(udinal vein (K41&) spinulose at 
base only.-- Call ip/iora. 
1)1). CMieeks bare; third longitudinal vein (R41-1.) spinulose. — 
Lucilia. 



•Transverje sutur ,Post alar callus 



Propleura 



Front coxa 




Haltere 



Hind coxa 



Middle coxa 



Fir.. 172 — Lateral view of the thorax of a niuscoiilean lly, with designations of 
the parts commonly used in ta.xonomic work. (Aflir Riley and Johannsen.) 

House-fly {Must a domestica Linn.). — A cosmopolitan insect 
dangerous lo luiinan life. A carrier for typhoid fever, tuberculosis, 
(l)'senlery and other diseases (Fi^. i7.0- 

Adult. — A two-winged lly with four black lines on back of thorax; 
brislle of antennai feathered; vein ending near lij) of wing distinctly 
elbowed; no bristles on abdomen except at the tip. Mouth-i)arts used 
for sucking not for piercing, retractile; mouth-j)arts and feet specially 
adapted for carrying micro-organisms. Each foot with two claws and 
two sticky pads. Egg-laying begins 10 14 days after adult emerges 
from i)uparium (Fig. 174). 

Eggs. — Minute, glistening white, long ovoid, J^ inch long. Laid in 
irregular small clusters. Each female la>'s about 120 eggs at a time 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 27 1 

and may lay several times; hatch in about 8 hours in midTSummer. 
Laid in horse manure, i>ig manure, and to a less extent in other manure, 
human excreta, in decaying grain, moist bran, moist mixtures of hay 
and grain from feed troughs, in excreta-soiled straw, decaying kitchen 
refuse, rotting fruits, vegetables, in ensilage. 





Fig. 173. — The common house-fly (Musca domestica). Puparium at left; adult next; 
larva and enlarged parts at right. All enlarged. {After Jloward.) 



Larva. — At first glistening white; two moults; duration about 5 days; 
yellowish when full grown, slender in front and truncate behind; a 
large hook above the mouth; active. Develops in horse manure 
and other filth in substances more or less alkaline. 

Pupa. — Puparium nearly cylindrical, 
dark chestnut; duration 3-4 days. 

Duration of life-cycle 10-14 days. Prob- 
ably seven to ten generations develop be- 
tween April 15th and October loth. Jt 
hibernates as larva or pu[)a in the South 
but pro]>ably more commonly as adult in 
the North. (Consult Howard's and 
Hewitt's books on ''House Flies.") 

Stable Fly {Stomoxys calcitrans Linn.). 
— Occurs in stables, yards, shady groves, dwellings, etc. 

Adult. — Resembles house-fly, but has piercing mouth-parts; bright 
golden tinge at front end of median, light stripe on thorax; six black lines 
on thorax; dorsal surface of abdomen with a number of nearly round 
dark spots. Bite severe but not poisonous. A carrier of disease; 
breeds in moist straw and hay. 




Fig. 174. — Extremity of 
tarsus: e., empodium; p., 
pulvillus in A, Jiihiu; Ji, 
Musca. 



272 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Eggs.. — Laid in an irregular heap of about 100 on manure and gar- 
bage; similar in form to those of House-lly; hatch in 2-3 days. 

Larva. — Similar in form to that of House-fly, but more trans- 
lucent in appearance. Duration 10-20 days. 

Pupa. — Duration 6-20 days; puparium reddish-brown, elongate- 
oval, Js inch long. 

This fly occurs in the open, but often enters houses; breeds rapidly 
in oat-straw and other organic refuse. Winters as pupa! or larva. 

Control. — Apply 0.62 lb. borax to every 10 cu. ft. (8 bushels) manure, 
on removal from stables, with a flour sifter or fine sieve, particularly 
about the edges of the pile, and sprinkle 2 or 3 gal. water over the 
heated manure; use fly-traps. (Consult Farmers' Bulls. 540, 734 and 
851, U. S. Dep. Agr., 1913.) 

Horn Fly {Hccmatobia serrata Rob.-Desv., Ly per osi a irritansLinn.). — 
(Consult Circ. 115, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dep. Agr.) Introduced into 
U. S. about 1886 from Europe, and has spread rapidly since. 

Adult. — Similar in shape and color to House-fly, but about half as 
large. June-September. 

Eggs. — Laid singly in fresh cow manure in day time, irregular, oval, 
light reddish brown. Egg-laying begins soon after adult emerges. 

Larva. — White, J^ inch long; full grown in 4-6 days. 

Pupa. — Puparium dark brown, eflipsoidal, J^ inch long; pupal 
stage lasts 5-10 days. 

Probably 6-8 generations in a season. 

Control. — (i) Killing the maggots by the introduction into the man- 
ure of limfe and other drying and destructive agents; (2) application of 
creolin compounds in the form of spray, or kerosene emulsion solution, 
or a mixture of 3 2 g^^- ^^h oil, ^ 2 P^^^^ coal oil, 4 tbspfls. crude carbolic 
acid applied with a cloth rubbed over the parts attacked. 

The main factors limiting the number of the common flies are: 

(a) The destruction of the larvae and pupae by braconid and chalcid 
parasites; 

(b) The lack of food for the larvae; 

(c) The enemies of the adults; 

{d) Weather conditions — oppressive sultry weather; cold, wet 
and windy weather; acting on the adults, and preventing the emergence 
of adults from the pupae. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 273 

The Screw-worm Fly (Chrysomyia macellaria Fab.) occurs as far 
north as Canada but is of importance economically in the south- 
western States as a pest of stock. The adult is larger than the house-fly, 
of a dark bluish-green color, with three distinct black stripes on the 
thorax. The eggs are laid in irregular masses upon dead animals and 
in wounds. The maggots bore into the carcass or fiesh, often causing 
death. (See Farmers' Bull. 857, U. S. Dep. Ag.) 

Blue Bottle or Green Bottle Flies. — Two or three common species 
of these flies occur which are also known as Blow, Green or Blue 
Bottle Flies. 

Meat Fly, or Blue Bottle, or Blow Fly (Calliphora vomitoria Linn.) . — - 
A large blackish fly with bluish abdomen and black spines on the thorax. 
Its eggs are laid on meat and dead animals, and each female may lay 400 
to 600 eggs, which hatch very soon after deposition. Duration of a gen- 
eration 22 to 23 days. C. erythrocephala Meig. is another common 
species with a pre-oviposition period of 12-17 days, an active larval 
stage of 3-4 days and a pupal stage of 7-9 days. 

Green Bottle Fly (Lucilia c(Bsar Linn.). — Similar in habits to Meat 
Fly, with pre-oviposition period of 1-3 weeks, active larval stage of 2-5 
days and a pupal stage of 5-16 days. Hibernates as larva and pupa. 

Phormia regina Meig. is a large black fly seen in early spring in 
houses, and breeds in garbage. 

Large Blue Bottle Fly {Cynomyia cadaverina Desv.) frequents 
pantries. Lays eggs on meats — smoked, uncured and cooked. Pre- 
oviposition period i to 3 weeks, larval period 5-40 days, and pupal 
stage 1-8 weeks. 

The Cluster Fly (Pollenia rudis Fabr.) and Muscina stahulans Fall. 

are also dangerous as disease carriers (see Part I). The former is 

found in early spring and late autumn crawling sluggishly about, 

often collecting in large numbers in and about houses. It has short 

curly yellow hair on dorsum of thorax. Probably breeds in manure 

and garbage. 

ANTHOMYIDiE (ANTHOMYIDS) 

Root Maggots (Phorbia spp.). — Three spec'es of root maggots are 
commonly injurious to root crops — Cabbage Root Maggot, Onion 
Maggot and Seed Corn Maggot. 

Cabbage Root Maggot {Phorbia brassicce Bouche). — A widely dis- 
tributed insect, introduced from Europe. 

18 



274 



iicoNoMU' i;n lOMOl.OC.Y 



l»l;i( kisli, rnllu 1 hro.id hands on hark ol" (horax and a dark siripc alon^ 
hai k (>r ahdoiucn; a iiiinihci ol" slilT hairs on hody and Ic^^s; cyrs iimI- 



* \ 


i^ 


1 


% . 



I''n.. I'/S- Male el llu- f.ibliar.i" i""i>l inar.f.ot. Hv. I'liiIarjM'tl alxuil, .{ I.imcs. 
(1'IhUo by J. v. Witil.viCitilli. Mli-r iiih.siHi untl Tichi-nu-, Unl. i.'., I'.nt. I>r. 
l)<pl. Auric. OUauHi.) 




\^n',. I7f). I<\Mnali' oi llu« i-alibaKi" tool, luar.)'."' "">■•• I'^-nlarKi'tl aboul. .i I iim>s. 
(I'liolo hy J. r. WaiLsicorlh.) AjUr ilih.soii ami lirlin-nr. Hid. l->, hint. Br. 
l><l't. .1 ,i; /•/■(. i^ttdirn.) 

(lish-purplc. llihiMiKilcs sonu-linics as achih. Tiv oviposilion pniod 
ahonl () days (Kigs. 175 and xjl)). 

J':i^i^s.'-K\\i\Ak'd\f while, J25 ''^^'^^ ^^*"^5 ^^ ^^° (k'l)()silcd sr|):iratoly 
on llu- snrfaiH' of ujronnd or on sliMii of planl ; siiv^v lasts ahoul a week. 



('|-assikh:a'ii()N and desckip'iion of common iNSf'irrs ^yt; 



Ltirvn. A wliilisli, ( ylindric ;i.l, fool less rna^^ol, (;i.|)criii[( low;i.r<l 
llic fronl, .'likI ;i.l)nij)lly Ici iiiiiialcd hcliiiid, wlicrc; -.ivv. \ 2 1 wo |)oiiil(<l 
ilesliy tubercles and 2 (()nsi)icuous reddish-hrowii spii.irlcs; J^^ iiK li 
lon^ wlien full ^rowii (;■; lo 4 weeks) (Figs. 177 and 178J. 

Pupa. J'upariuni in (;arl,li, oval, l^"^ \nv\\ loi)|^, clicsliml-hrowii; 
2 weeks in June; hibernates. 





Vh;. 177. -(a) (!:iim1.'i1 ctid of cahbaK*' root rnuHMol, ; (h) of the iin])orlc<l 

onion inaKK'>l'; ''iii<l (^;) of the. secd-coru TnaKK'>''; sliowiu}.^ arraiiK<*m<',nt of flr;;liy 

tuln;r(.l«;s and central spiracle:;. All nnii h (tnl;u>M;(|. (Ajicy (iilr.un and 'J't't:lt<tnt', 
lint. liuL 12, Dept. Afiric. Ottawa.) 

Lije-history. Adulls aj)j)ear in May, when (:a])bages are being set 
oul, and deposit (;gK^- iVIag[.^ots hat( li in a w(!ek and feed on roots 
for 3 or 4 weeks when tliey change to j)Uj)u: witlnn j>U|)aria in 
the soil. In 15 days or so the adults appear in late June and July 
to lay eggs for a se(ond brood. The imnibcr of broods is uii(<Tlaiii, 
probably three or four, bill llie laler bnjods do bill lilllc li.irin. 




"^^■mhhkm 




Vu.. 17H. C^abaK<; ro(it manr.ot, side view. K\\\:ivyyi\ '] time:;. 

'I'rehertH'., I'.nt. Jir. (.an.) 



(AJit-y (iUr.on and 



Control.— \Jy>(i "single-j)ly tarred felt" j)aj)er disks when young 
plants are set out; use cheese doth frames as screens; |)l.'uil trap-crops; 
api>ly white hellebore or j)yrethrum either as dust or as solution; 
use carbolic wash; use corrosive sublimate solution (4 oz to 50 
gal. water). Jn the case of the last three insecticides, treatment 
should be made when the plants are set out and repeated once a week 
for 5 weeks. 

Jinemies. — Baryodma onlarionis, a Staj>hylinid; Colhonaspis gilleUci 
Wash., a ('ynipid; and 'rrombidlum sj)p. (Consult Ikill. j2, Va\\.. lir. 



276 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Dep. Agr. Canada, 1916; Bull. 419, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Stn.; Cornell Univ., 
Bull. 78.) 

Onion Maggot (Phorbia ceparum Mg. = Hylemyia anfiqua Mg.). 
Adult. — Slightly larger than Cabbage Root Maggot Fly; body and 
legs with many black bristles; back of thorax of male with four indistinct 
dark colored bands; abdomen with a distinct blackish band down 
the middle; May- June. Probably three broods a year. Pre-oviposi- 
tion period about 10 days (Fig. 180). 




Fig. 179. — Onion maggot {Phorbia ceparum), female and head of male. 

Eggs. — Cylindrical, white, distinctly ridged; groove not so deep or 
long as in P. brassicce; duration 3 to 4 days. 

Larva. — White, cylindrical, rounded, truncate at posterior end; 
% inch long; central tubercles of blunt end single-pointed, with a pair 
of additional tubercles. Duration 2-3 weeks, occasionally 4-5 weeks. 
Young larva works its way down within the sheath of the plant to the 
forming bulb, in which it feeds. 

Pupa. — Puparia formed in soil or in outer layers of onion. Found 
iJ^-3 inches below the surface. Summer duration about 2 weeks; 
hibernates. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 277 

The Barred-winged Onion Maggot {Chaitopsis (jenea Wied.) is also 
injurious to onions (Michigan). 

Control. — Apply poisoned bait spray composed of sodium arsenite 
and molasses to kill adults; apply hellebore, pyrethrum and carbolic 
wash. 

Seed Com Maggot (Fhorbiafusciceps Zett.). — (Consult Bull. 12, Ent. 
Br. Dep. Agric. Can.). Injurious frequently to beans, peas and corn. 

Adult. — Smaller than Onion Maggot Fly, 3^:5 inch long; bands on 
back of thorax indistinct, those on abdomen distinct; inner side of pos- 
terior tibiae of male with a row of short bristly hairs. Body of female 
pointed, eyes widely separate. June- July. 

Eggs. — ^Laid on or about the seed in the soil, or on the seedhng. 

Larva. — Smaller than Cabbage Root Maggot or Onion Maggot, 3-:^ 
inch long; whitish, cylindrical, footless, blunt at caudal end and pointed 
at the head. Caudal tubercles simple, rather close together with a 
trace of additional tubercles. Feeds mostly on the seed. 

Pupa. — Puparium }i inch long, light brown to dark reddish-brown; 
duration 12 days. 

Number of generations not yet known. Injury seems most severe 
when a wet period follows immediately after planting the seed. 

Control. — Difficult. Use mineral fertilizers; carbolic acid emulsion. 

Raspbeny Cane Maggot (Fhorbia rubivora Coquillet). Adult. — A 
grayish-black fly, smaller than the house-fly. April. 

Eggs. — White, elongate, H5 inch long, laid in the axil of young 
leaves at the tip of shoot. Hatch in a few days. 

Larva. — Maggot bores into the pith of the shoot, and tunnels 
downward, making a tortuous path. About halfway down it girdles 
the wood beneath the bark. It continues burrowing downward and 
becomes full grown in June. Wilting occurs in May. 

Pupa. — Formed at lower end of burrow in June and July. 

Control. — Cut off and burn the wilting canes as soon as observed. 

Beet Leaf Miner {Pegomyia vicina Lintner). — It is sometimes de- 
structive to beets in late fall. Whitish blotches are formed on the 
leaves. There are several generations each year, and the winter is 
passed in the pupal condition under fallen leaves or in the soil. The 
eggs are placed on the lower side of the leaves, and the maggots mine 
in the leaves; life-cycle about a month. 

Control. — Pick and burn infested leaves where practicable; use 



278 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



spinach as a trap crop; plow deep and harrow as soon as crop is 
removed. 

Lesser House-fly {Homalomyia canicularis Linn.). — This fly is 
smaller than Musca domestica, and may be observed in houses in early 
summer. As an Anthomyiid it can be readily distinguished from the 
true muscids by the venation of the wings. In this species the middle 
tibiae are without a tubercle. 

The larva, 3^:5 inch long, is markedly different from that of Musca. 
It has a flattened body with a double row of spiny processes. It 
lives in waste vegetables and animal matter, and no doubt is responsible 




Fig. 180. — The little house-fly {Homalomyia hrcvis). Female at left; male next, 
with enlarged antenna; larva at right. All enlarged. {After Howard.) 

for the transmission of certain diseases. It becomes full grown in 
about a week, sometimes prolonged to 3 or 4 weeks. 

The Little House Fly {Homalomyia brevis Rond.) occurs about 
outbuildings and breeds in human excrement. It acts, no doubt, 
as a disease carrier (Fig. 180). 

The Latrine Fly {Homalomyia scalaris Fab.) is also under suspicion 
as a carrier of contagion. Middle tibiae with a tubercle. 



TACHINID^ (TACHINA FLIES) 

These flies are useful in that the larvae or maggots are parasitic 
within the bodies of injurious caterpillars. The female tachina fly lays 
her eggs upon the caterpillar or upon the leaves of the food plant, 
and the maggots on hatching bore their way through the walls and 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 279 

live within the body until full grown. Tachina flies resemble house- 
flies but are usually more bristly and hairy. The bristles of the antennse 
are entirely bare. They are frequently found about flowers and rank 
vegetation. Besides caterpillars, such as army-worms and cutworms, 
locusts, leaf-eating beetles and other injurious forms are kept under 
control by tachina flies. 

HIPPOBOSCID^ (SHEEP TICKS) 

Sheep Ticks {Melophagus ovinus Linn.) are wingless, brownish 
flattened blood-sucking insects belonging to the sub-order Pupipara. 
They are often very injurious to lambs in spring after shearing time. 
Sheep should, therefore, be dipped twice after shearing in some good 
"dip," of which several kinds are on the market. (See Farmers' Bull. 
798, U. S. Dep. Agr.) 

Life-history. — Each female produces 5 to 8 nearly full grown larvae 
which become brown puparia in about 12 hours. Eggs are not pro- 
duced. The adult tick emerges in 19-24 days after the deposition of the 
pupa, and reaches sexual maturity 3 or 4 days later. In 8 to 10 days 
after fertilization the female deposits the larva. 

ORDER SIPHONAPTERA (FLEAS) 

Pulicidae (Fleas). — (Consult Farmers' Bull. 897, U. S. Dep. Ag.) 
Two species of fleas are found infesting houses: the Human Flea 
(Pulex irritans) most commonly found on the Pacific Coast, the Cat 
and Dog Flea (Pulex serraticeps) in the eastern part of the continent. 
Fleas are most numerous in sandy regions and in rainy seasons. 

Htiman Flea (Pulex irritans Linn.). — Secretes itself in bedding 
and clothing, and attacks its human victims at night. 

Adult. — Body compressed; wingless; legs long and stout; tarsi 
5- join ted, and mouth-parts adapted for sucking; antenna small, eyes 
simple. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in dust or lint under carpets and other out-of-the-way 
places, whitish and ovoid; in summer hatching in 4 to 6 days. Each 
female lays 8 to 12 eggs. 

Larva. — ^Lives and feeds in dust or Htter; slender, worm-like, footless, 
sparsely haired; fuU grown in summer in about 11 days, but may be 
prolonged to several months. 



28o ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Pupa. — Formed where larva lives, often enclosed in a small silk 
cocoon, covered with dust. Duration about 12 days in warm con- 
ditions, but may be more than a year under unfavorable conditions. 

Cat and Dog Flea {Pulex serraticeps Gerv. = Ctenocephalus canis 
Curtis). Adult. — ^Like that of House Flea but with a comb of spines on 
border of head and pronotum. Adheres quite closely to its host. 

Eggs. — ^Laid loosely among the hairs of host; small white and oval; 
hatch in about 2 weeks. Collect on mats. 

Larva. — At first white, footless, maggot-like; head pale yellow; 
feeds on decaying particles of animal and vegetable matter; matures in 
summer in about 12 days. 

Pupa. — Duration 12 to 16 days in summer in a cocoon. This flea 
may be found in winter in any of the stages. Several broods each 
season. 

Control. — Bathe the animals frequently in a 3 per cent, creolin 
solution (4 teaspoonf uls to a quart of water) ; provide them with sleep- 
ing mats and have these mats beaten or shaken regularly once a week; 
keep the kennel clean; dust fresh pyrethrum thoroughly among the 
hairs of the animals and on the floors; remove carpets or mats and 
give floors a thorough cleaning with soapsuds and later with benzine; 
dust powdered alum upon the carpets, etc. 

Treatment of bites with a 3 per cent. carboHc acid solution, 
menthol, camphor or carbolated vaseline will allay the irritation. 

COLEOPTERA (BEETLES) 

Chief Groups of Beetles 

A. Head of the ordinary form, not prolonged into a narrow beak; maxillae 
divided; palpus flexible, usually 4- join ted; larvae rarely without legs. — 
Tyue Beetles (Fig. 181). 
B. All tarsi with the same number of segments. — Isomera. 

C. Fourth and fifth tarsal segments not grown together. — Pentamera 
(Fig. 182). 
D. First three ventral segments of abdomen grown together; 
most with thread-like antennae. — Carnivora or Fredaceous 
Beetles. 
DD. First ventral segments of abdomen not grown together. 
E. Antennas club-shaped. — Clavicornia or Club-horns 
(Fig. 183). 
EE. Antennae serrate. — Serricornia or Saw-horns {Fig. 184). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 28 1 

EEE. Antennae lamellate. — Lamellicornia or Leaf-horns 
(Fig. 183). 
CC. Fourth and fifth tarsal segments grown together; antennas 
bead-like. — Phytophaga or Plant-eaters (Fig. 184, A). 




^•13 



Fig. 181. — Ventral aspect, of a carabid beetle {Galerita janus) . i, Prosternum; 
2, proepisternum; 3, proepimeron; 4, coxal cavity; 5, inflexed side of pronotum; 
6, mesosternum; 7, mesoepisternum ; 8, mesoepimeron; 9, metasternum; 10, ante- 
coxal piece; 11, metaepisternum; 12, metaepimeron; 13, inflexed side of elytron; 
a., sternum; an., antenna; c, coxa;/., femur. (After Folsom.) 

CCC. Tarsi 3-jointed; antennae clavicorn. — Trimera Coccinellida, p. 281. 
BB. Fore and middle tarsi 5-jointed and hind tarsi 4-jointed. — Heteromera. 
A A. Head often prolonged into a beak; maxillae undivided; palpi rigid and not 
more than 3-jointed; larvae legless. — Rhyncophora or Snout Beetles, p. 328. 



282 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Chief Families of the Carnivora Group: 

A. Legs adapted for running; terrestrial; antennae ii-jointed. 

B. Antennae inserted on front of head above the base of the mandibles. — 
Cicindelidce (Tiger Beetles), p. 284. 
BB. Antennae inserted on sides of head between the base of the mandibles 
and the eyes. — CarabidcB (Ground Beetles), p. 285. 
A A. Legs adapted for swimming; aquatic. 

B. With only two eyes. — DytiscidcB (Diving Beetles). 
BB. With four eyes. — Gyrinidce (Whirligig Beetles). 




y^^^^mm/ 




Tib, 



Fig. 182. — Tarsi of 



coleoptera. A, Leptinotarsa; B, 
fore leg; D, Tenehrio, hind leg. 



Coccinella; C, Tenehrio, 



Chief Families of the Clavicornia Group: 

A. Legs fitted for swimming; aquatic. — Hydrophilidce (Water-scavengers). 
AA. Legs not fitted for swimming; terrestrial. 

B. Elytra short. — Staphylinidce (Rove Beetles). 
BB. Elytra as long or nearly as long as body. 

C. Abdomen with 5 ventral segments. — Dermestidce (Larder Beetles), 
p. 291. 
CC. Abdomen with 6 or more ventral segments. — Silphidce (Carrion 
Beetles), p. 293. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 283 



Chief Families of the Serricornia Group (Fig 184) : 

A. Head inserted in thorax up to compound eyes. 

B. First two segments of abdomen fused together on ventral side. — 
BuprestidcB (Metallic Wood-borers), p. 300. 
BB. First two segments of abdomen not fused. — Elateridce (Click Beetles), 
p. 293. 
AA. Head not inserted in thorax up to compound eyes. 

B, Head normal or bent, but partially covered by the margin of thorax. 
C. Elytra flexible; body elongated and flattened. — Lampyrida (Fire 
Flies). 
CC. Elytra firm; body not much flattened. — Cleridce (Checkered 
Beetles). 










^ 



Fig. 183. — Forms of antennae of beetles, 1-9, clavate; 10, 12, 13, lamellate; 
moniliform. (After Leconte and Horn.) 



II. 



BB. Head bent nearly at right angles to thorax; size small— Ptinidcs 
(Death Watch Beetles, etc.), p. 327. 
Chief Families of the Lamellicornia Group: 

A. Antennae elbowed; lamellce fixed. — Lucanidce (Stag Beetles), p. 318. 
AA. Antennae not elbowed; lamellae not fixed. — ScarahczidcB (Leaf Chafers), p. 302. 
Chief Families of the Phytophaga Group: 
A. Body and antennae short. 

B. Front of head prolonged into a broad, quadrate, beak; elytra short; 
seed eaters. — Bruchidce (Pea- weevils), p. 319, 
BB. Front of head not prolonged into a beak; elytra long; leaf-eaters. — 
ChrysomelidcB (Leaf Beetles), p. 306. 
AA. Body and antennas long. — Ceramhycidce (Long-horned Beetles), p. 320. 
Chief Families of the Heteromera Group: 

A. Head with distinct neck; body soft and elytra flexible. — MeloidcB (Blister 
Beetles), p. 325. 
AA. Head without distinct neck; body wall hard. — Tenehrionida (Darkling 
Beetles), p. 328. 



284 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Chief Genera of the Rhyneophora Group: 

B. Beak short and broad; anteniiit short, gcnicuhite and ckibbcd; tibia* 
often with several teeth externally; head narrower than prothorax; 
ej'es oval, emarginatc or divided; first tarsal joint much shorter than 
combined length of the others. — I pidec (Bark Beetles), p. 339. 
BB. Beak usually long and well developed; palpi small and concealed; 
antennae usually clubbed; tibine without teeth externally; submentum 
produced into a gular peduncle. 
C. Dorsum of last segment of male divided transversely. 

D. Mandibles with a scar on anterior aspect. — Otiorhynchidce, 

P- 3?>^- 
DD. Mandibles without scar on anterior aspect. — Curculionidce 

(Curculios), p. 329. 
CC. Dorsum of last segment of both sexes undivided; tibix not 
serrated. — Calandrid(C (Clrain Weevils), p. 337. 




^^113 



Fig. 184. — Serrate antennae and modifications: i, serrate; 2, pectinate; 3, bi- 
pectinate; 4, flabellate; 5, plumose; 6, 7, 8, irregularly serrate, approaching the 
clavicorn type. {After Leconte and Horn.) 

CICINDELIDiE (TIGER BEETLES) 

Tiger beetles, both adult and larvae, are predaceous, feeding upon 
caterpillars and other unwary insects. The adults are active, alert 
creatures, and are most commonly observed on sandy grounds and 
roads. They are brilliantly marked with metallic colors. 

The larvae live in vertical burrows and there lie in wait for their 
prey. They have . strong jaws and large dirt-colored heads, and 
the fifth abdominal segment bears a hump with two backward-curved 
hooks which serve to anchor their owners in the burrows. 

The majority of the species belong to the genus Ciclndela, and the 
most abundant forms are C. sexguttata Fab., C. vulgaris Say, C. repanda 
Dej., C. hirticollis Say, and C. punctulata Oliv. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 285 

CARABIDiE (GROUND BEETLESj 

Common Genera (after Leconte and Horn) : 

A. Middle coxal cavities entirely closed by the sterna (Fig. 185). 

B. Head with two punctures above the eye, each bearing a single bristly 
hair. 
C. Margin of elytra interrupted at posterior end and with a distinct 
internal fold; three basal joints of antenna glabrous. 
D. Last joint of palpi as long as or longer than the next to the 
last and cylindrical. — Plcrostichus. 
DD. Last joint of palpi shorter than the next to the last. — Amara. 
CC. Margin of elytra not interrupted posteriorly and without an 
internal fold. 
D. Penultimate joint of labial palpi with but two bristly hairs; 
elytra truncate at tip; front tibiae slender; tibial spurs 
short, head constricted behind the eyes. — Lebia. 






Pig. 185. — Prosterna of beetles. A, Coxal cavities (CC) confluent and open 
behind; B, coxal cavities Separated and open behind; C, coxal cavities separated 
and closed behind. (After Wickham.) 



DD. Penultimate joint of labial palpi with a number of bristly 
hairs in front and always longer than last joint; first 
antennal joint elongate; head elongate-oval, prolonged 
behind the eyes. — Galerita. 
BB. Head with but one bristle-bearing puncture above the eye. 

C. Elytra truncate at apex; mandibles with a bristle-bearing punc- 
ture in outer groove; hind coxse often separated. — Brachinus 
(Bombardier Beetle). 
CC. Elytra always entire; mandibles without a bristle-bearing 
puncture; hind coxa? contiguous. 
D. Antennae with only two basal joints glabrous; black, 
front tarsi of male dilated and with two rows of small 
scales beneath; first joint of hind tarsus not longer than 
the two following. — Harpalus. 
AA. Middle coxal cavities not entirely closed by the sterna (Fig. 185). 

B. Hind coxae not separated; labrum not forked; third joint of antennae 
cylindrical. — Carabus. 
BB. As in B, but third joint of antennae compressed. — Calosoma. 



286 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Ground beetles are common insects and, with two or three exceptions, 
prey upon injurious forms and do not feed upon fruits, leaves or seeds. 
(See Part I, Beneficial Insects.) Following are the species most com- 
monly met with: 

Some Common Carabids 

Murky Ground Beetles: 

Pterostichus lucuhlandus Say. — Color usually green or bluish, not 
polished; length 10-14 mm.; thorax widened posteriorly; striae of elytra 




Fig. 186. — A carabid beetle {Pterostichus lucuhlandus) . {After Gibson and Treherne, 

Ent. Bui. 12, Dep. Ag. Can.) 

smooth; 4 dorsal punctures; legs usually reddish; under surface punc- 
tured; three basal joints of antennae distinctly carinate; basal impressions 
of thorax double (Fig. 186). 

Galerita janus Fab. — Black, clothed with short hairs; length 17- 
22 mm.; legs, palpi, thorax and base of antennae reddish-brown; head 
black, strongly constricted behind; prothorax half as wide as wing- 
covers; elytral striae fine not punctured. 

Lebia grandis Hertz. — ^Length 9 mm.; head and thorax reddish-yel- 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 287 

low; under surface and legs pale brownish-yellow; abdomen black; 
elytra dark blue and deeply striate; antennae pale; head finely wrinkled; 
tarsal claws comb-shaped; tibial spurs short; thorax but little wider 
than head and much narrower than elytra. 

Harpalus caliginosus Fab. — Pitchy black, length 21-25 mm.; an- 
tennae and tarsi reddish-brown; legs black, thorax broader than long, 
narrow in front, as broad as base of elytra nearly square; elytra 
deeply striate and without a dorsal puncture on third interval, and 
sinuate at tip. A seed-eater. 

Harpalus pennsylvanicus Dej. — Black, length 13-15 mm,; antennae 
and legs reddish-yellow; under surface reddish-brown to piceous; 
sides of thorax gradually curved; region of basal angles strongly de- 
pressed, densely punctate; mentum toothed. 

Metallic Ground Beetles : 

Calosoma scrutator Fab. — (Searcher). Length 28-30 mm.; disk of 
thorax blue; margins reddish-bronzed, sides and angles rounded; legs 
blue, abdomen green and red; elytra metallic green with red margin, 
striate, punctured; third joint of antennae compressed. 

Calosoma calidum Fab. — (Fiery Hunter). Length 22 mm.; 
black above and below; elytra black with six rows of golden spots, 
deeply striate and finely punctate; head and thorax finely rugose; 
third joint of antennae compressed. 

Calosoma sycophanta Linn. — A European form imported to combat 
the Gypsy and the Brown-tail moths. Both larvae and adults are 
predaceous and freely climb trees in search of their prey. The eggs 
are deposited in the earth and the mature larvae seek the earth again 
and construct pupal cells. The adult beetles emerge late in the spring. 
They are about an inch long, and of a beautiful green color. (See Bull, 
loi, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dep. Ag.) 

COCCINELLIDiE (LADY-BIRD BEETLES) 

(Consult Bull. 181, Conn. Agr. Exp. St. and "Coleoptera of Indiana.") 
Lady-bird beetles are essentially feeders on plant-lice and scale 
insects; both as adults and larvae; hence are of great economic impor- 
tance. (See Part I, Beneficial Insects.) 
Common Lady-birds: 

Two-Spotted Adalia (Adalia bipundata Linn.). — Wing-covers red 
with a black spot in the centre of each; thorax black-margined with 



288 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



yellow; head black with two yellow spots between eyes; legs and under 
side of body black. Feeds on plant-lice. Common. Egg stage lasts 
about a week, larval stage about 3 weeks, and the pupal stage about a 
week. One-eighth to one-fifth inch long (Fig. 188). 

Twice-stabbed Chilocorus {Chiloconis hivulnerus Muls.). — Wing- 
covers black with a red spot near centre of each; head, thorax and legs 
black; under side of thorax black, and abdomen red. Larva spiny; 
pupa black and spiny. Feeds on scale insects and plant-lice (Fig. 188). 

Two-spotted Hyperaspis {Hyperaspis signata Oliv.). — Wing-covers 
black with a red circular spot and a smaller yellowish spot on each; thorax 




Fig. 187. — The 15-spotted lady-bird in all its stages. Enlarged about 3 times. 

{After Brilton.) 

and head black. In male the head and margins of thorax yellow. 
Larva white and woolly. Feeds on cottony maple scale. 

Spotted Megilla {Megilla maculata'DeG. = Megillafuscilabris Muls.). 
— Wing-covers red with six black spots on each; thorax red with two 
triangular black spots; head black with a red median stripe; legs and 
under surface of body black. Larva blackish with white lines and 
black spots. Feeds on plant-lice. One-fourth inch long. 

Pitiful Lady-bird (Fentilia misella Lee). — Black, small. Feeds on 
San Jose Scale (Fig. 189). 

Convergent Lady-bird (Hippodamia convergens Guer.). — Wing- 
covers reddish yellow with six black dots on each; thorax black with 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 289 








Fig. 188. — Lady-bird beetles: a, a 2-spotted lady-beetle (Adalia bipunctata); 
b, the convergent lady-beetle {Hippodamia convey gens) ; c, the g-spotted lady- 
beetle (Coccinella g-notata); d, twice-stabbed lady-bird (Chilocorus bivulnertis); 
e, the 5-spotted lady-beetle (C. $-notala). {After Briiton.) 




Pig. iSQ.—Pentilia misella LeC: a, beetle; b, larva; c, pupa; d, blossom end of 
scale infested pear, showing beetles and their larvae feeding upon the scales, all 
greatly enlarged. {After Howard and Mariatt. Bull. 3, Div Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric.) 



19 



290 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



margins yellow and two oblique yellow dashes; head black with 
yellow between the eyes; legs and under surface of body black. Larva 
yellow with black spots and cross bands. Feeds on plant-lice, etc. 
One-fourth to one-third inch long (Fig. 188). 

Thirteen-spotted Lady-bird {Hippodamia ly punctata Linn.). — 
Wing-covers reddish-yellow marked with 13 spots; thorax black with 
yellow margins; head black with yellow mouth-parts. Under surface of 
body and femora black; tibias and tarsi yellow. Feeds on plant-lice. 




Fig. 190. — The squash lady-bird beetle {Epilachna borealis). 

Five-Spotted Lady-bird {Coccinella ^-notafa). — Wing-covers red with 
five black bands; thorax with front lateral margins yellow; head black 
with two yellow spots between the eyes; legs and under surface black. 
Feeds on plant-lice. One-fourth to three-eighth inch long (Fig. 188). 

Nine-spotted Lady-bird {Coccinella g-notata Herbst.). — Wing- 
covers reddish-yellow with 9 black spots; thorax black with front mar- 
gin or red yellow; head red or yellow; legs and under surface black. 
Larva with black markings on thorax and white markings^on abdomen. 
Feeds on plant-lice. One-fourth to three-eighth inch long. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 29 1 

Fifteen-spotted Lady-bird {Anatis 1 $- punctata 0\\y.). — Wing-covers 
reddish yellow with 8 spots on each; thorax black with wide white lat- 
eral margins with a black spot in each, and two whitish spots at poste- 
rior margin; under surface of body black with yellowish margins; 
femora black, tibiae and tarsi brown % inch long. Larva large, black 
with sharp spines on each segment. Feeds on plant-lice. Three- 
eighth inch long (Fig. 187). 

Squash Lady-beetle {Epilachna horealis Fab.). — A native insect 
occurring in the east as far north as Canada. The adult and larva of 
this lady-beetle feed on the leaves of cucumbers. The adult is orange- 
yellow with four black spots on the thorax and seven on each wing- 
cover. The larva is yellow and armed with six rows of forked black 
spines. The adults hibernate in large colonies beneath leaves on the 
ground (Fig. 190). 

DERMESTID^ (LARDER AND CARPET BEETLES) 

Larder Beetle (Dermestes lardarius Linn.). — Sometimes a pest in 
meat pantries, and where skins and feathers are kept. 

Adult. — Dark brown, J^ inch long, oval; a pale yellowish-brown 
black-dotted band across the front half of the wing-covers. Hibernates. 

Eggs. — ^Laid on meat, or in crevices near the food. 

Larva. — One-half inch long, brown above, white below and covered 
with long brown hairs; feeding on surface of meat at first, later 
burrowing into it and pupating there. 

Control. — Trap or collect the beetles; clean the pantry thoroughly; 
wrap the hams very closely; fumigate the pantry. 

Buffalo Carpet Beetle (Anthrenus scrophularm Linn.). — A serious 
pest of carpets and woolens. Introduced from Europe, where it is 
principally a museum pest (Fig. 191). 

Adult. — A stout oval beetle, ^q inch long, with black, white and 
red mottled wing-covers. Winters normally out of doors, under bark 
of trees, and other shelters. In spring it visits the flowers of spiraeas, 
cherries, etc. Probably two generations in the North. 

^SS^' — ^Laid in convenient places on carpets or other woolens. 
Hatch in a few days. 

Larva. — A stout active grub, J^ inch long, covered with stiff brown 
hairs, forming tufts at the sides and at the end of body. Develops 



292 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



rapidly, but may be retarded by cold weather or by lack of food. 
Normally six moults; feeds on woolens. 

Pupa. — Yellowish, formed within a larval skin. 

Control. — Use rugs; remove and beat the carpets, and spray them 
with gasoline; scrub the floors with soap and water; spray floors with 
gasoline, and fill the cracks with putty. 

Black Carpet Beetle {Attagenus piceus Oliv.). — Introduced from 
Europe. Injury done by the larva. 

Adult. — A small black oval beetle, smaller than the Buffalo Carpet 
Beetle, }{q inch long. 

Eggs. — White, broadly oval; laid about the edges of the carpet or on 
woolens. 




Fig. 191. — Bufifalo carpet beetle (Anthrenus scrophularioe): a, larva, dorsal 
view; b, pupa within larval skin; c, pupa, ventral view; d, adult. All enlarged. 
{From Riley.) 



Larva. — A reddish-brown active grub, }i inch long, with a long 
bushy tail of reddish hairs; body cylindrical with closely appressed 
hairs. 

Pupa. — Duration 6-15 days; clothed with a coat of whitish hairs. 

A museum pest; a house pest feeding on woolens, carpets and 
feathers. Probably requires 2 years for life-cycle. 

Raspberry Byturus (Byturus unicolor Say). Adult. — A small brown 
dermestid beetle, 3^^ inch long; body covered with pale tawny hairs. 
May- July. Feeds on young leaves and buds. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in June on the unripe fruit, one egg on a berry and at- 
tached by one side to one of the carpels. 

Larva. — A small white plump cylindrical grub, J^ inch long; each 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 293 

segment marked crosswise with a broad yellow band and many short 
white hairs. Feeds on heads bearing the berries. 

Pupa. — Yellowish, formed in an earthen cell in the ground, where it 
winters. 

Control. — ^Spray with arsenate of lead, 3-4 lb. to about 40 gal., where 
beetles first appear. 

SILPHIDiE (CARRION BEETLES) 

Spinach Carrion Beetle (Silpha bituberosa Lee). — The shiny black 
active flattened larva of this dull black beetle destroys the leaves 
of spinach, pumpkin, squash, beet, etc. at night. Eggs are laid in 
June and the grubs mature four or five weeks later. The adult beetles 
winter under clods, etc. 

S. opaca L. is also an injurious species in the West. 

ELATERID^ (CLICK BEETLES, WIREWORMS) 

Common Economic Genera (After Leconte and Horn) : 

A. Hind coxal plates suddenly dilated about the middle, the outer part much 
narrower than the inner. 
B. Prosternum very broad, sutures straight, side pieces of mesothorax 
reaching the middle coxae. — Cryptohypnus. 
BE. Prosternum of moderate width; sutures double and not excavated in 
front; third joint of antennae longer than second.— Dr aster ins. 
AA. Hind coxal plates gradually dilated on the inner side. 

B. Clypeus or front convex and truncate, its edge higher than the labrum, 
mouth inferior and applied to the prosternum in repose. Side mar- 
gins of thorax bent downward in front. — Agriotes. 
BB. Clypeus or front flattened; mouth horizontal or anterior. 

C. Front margined; tarsal claws with comb-like teeth. — Melanotus. 
CC. Front not margined. 

D. Tarsi simple, filiform. — Corymhites. 

DD. Tarsi with the second and third joints lobed beneath. — 
Asaphes. 

WiREWORMS 

The larvse of click beetles are known as ''Wire worms" of which 
several species are injurious to the roots of cereal crops. Perhaps the 
most common are Agriotes mancus, Drasterius elegans, Asaphes de- 



294 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



coloratus, Melanotus communis, Cryptohypmus abbreviatus, and Corym- 
bites spp. (Consult Bull. 156, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dep. Ag., 1915.) 

Adults. — Slender oval hard beetles (the ''click" or "snapping" 
beetles) with serrated antennae, mostly brownish in color, sometimes 
black or greyish, or even metallic. In Agriotes mancus Say, the " wheat 
wire worm," the thorax is very convex, coarsely and densely punctate, 
and the front or clypeus convex. It is dull brownish yellow, dusky 
beneath, sparsely pubescent, and about 3^^ inch long. Diasterius 





Pig. 192. — Agriotes mancus. 
(After Forbes.) 



Pig. 193. — Melanotus crihulosus, 
{After Forbes.) 



elegans Fabr. is dull reddish brown, about J^ inch long, sparsely pubes- 
cent, head black, a median black spot on thorax, a black spot in front 
of middle of each wing-cover, and a black cross-bar near the apex. 
Asaphes decolor atus Say is shining black, about half an inch long, with 
hind angles of thorax divergent. Melanotus communis Gyll. is about 
J^ inch long, dull brown, and with a more or less distinct median im- 
pressed line on basal half of thorax (Figs. 192-195). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 295 

LarvcB. — Slender, cylindrical, yellowish or reddish-brown, wire-like 
grub, mostly vegetable feeders, in the ground; more than an inch long 
when full grown. Require 2 to 5 years to reach maturity. 

Pupa. — A soft white body resembling the adult in form, in a pupal 
cell in the ground. 




Fig. 194. — Drasterius elegans. (After Forbes.) 

Agriotes mancus Say {Wheat Wirew or m). — Mating takes place in 
April and May, and eggs are laid immediately in grass lands. The 
larvae feed for 2 full years, pupating in July. The pupal stage lasts 
from 2 to 3 weeks in the pupal cell about 5 inches below the surface. 
Larvae have been reported feeding on the roots of wheat, corn, turnip, 
cabbage, cucumber and carrot; on potato tubers and on corn seed. 



296 



I'XONoMic 1';ni"()M()1,()(;y 



The ^rul) of Agriotcs manciis is cylindrical, jxilc brownish-yellow, 
iii^'hly polished, with two black ])ils on last segment which tapers 
gradually to a brown point, and about an inch long when full grown. 

Mclano/iis spp. {Corn, W irrwornis). Vhc larva: si)end 2 to 5 years 
ill the soil, and feed on corn, an<l other cereal and forage crops. 
Common s|)ecies observed: M. (ommunis, M . Jlssilis, M. cribulosus. 

Ilyslop reports that larvie of Mclanolus are largely confined to 
poorly drained and hcav\' sour soil. They s])end 2 to 5 years in the 




Pic. 195. — The dry-laml wircwonn (Coryinhilrs noxliis): a, adult; h, larva; 
r, under surface of head of larva; d, side of last soKincut of larva. All enlarged. 
{After \\'<ill(yn. I'. S. liitr. J'.nt.) 



soil; pupate in July-August, adults transforming 12-22 days later, 
but emerging the following s])ring. 

The grub of Mchinotus connuitiiis is smooth and shining and of a 
light brown color; the Uist segment ends in a blunt tubercle. 

The grub of Dr aster ins clcjians is one of the smallest wireworms, 
being ^ fj to '2 inch long, and of a light waxy yellow color. The last 
segment has an acute apical notch, is nearly Hat, and roughish above. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 297 

The grub of Asaphes decolor atus is above % inch long, with an oval 
apical notch on last segment; dark waxy yellow; matures in May- 
June. Pupal stage lasts about 3 weeks. 

Cryptohypnus abhreviatus Say. — A common wireworm in Eastern 
United States and Canada. Adult is small, Jf fj inch long, broad and 
flattened; dark brown. Larva is y^ inch long, flattened, pale yellow, 
and its caudal segment furnished with a circular notch; resembles that 




Fi(^. 196. — JJmonius confusus. (After Walton.) 



of Drasterius elegans. Pupates in August-September; adult emerges 9 
days later. 

Corymhites caricinus, C. tarsalis, C. cylindriformis feed on flower 
buds of apple and pear in Canada. 

General Life-history of Wireworms. — The full grown larvai change 
to pupae in the soil in July and August. These become adult beetles 
in about a month, h)ut remain in the ground until spring in their pupal 
cells. On emerging they lay their eggs in grass lands in the earth. It 
is probable that the larval stage of most species lasts 2 years, but in 
some species 3 or even 5 years. 



298 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Control. — Professors Comstock, Slingerland and Forbes several 
years ago carried on a long series of experiments in the hope of finding 
out a satisfactory method of treating wireworms. These experiments 
were carried out along three lines: 

1. By the protection of the seed. 

2. By the destruction of grubs by cultivation and clean fallow, 
and immune crops, and by the use of insecticides and fertilizers. 

3. By trapping the adult click beetles. 

The following substances were used as a protection for the seed: 

1. A coating of Paris Green and flour. 

2. A coating of tar. 

3. Soaking the seed in a solution of salt. 

4. Soaking the seed in a solution of copperas. 

5. Soaking the seed in a solution of chloride of lime and copperas. 

6. Soaking the seed in a solution of kerosene oil. 

7. Soaking the seed in a solution of spirits of turpentine. 

8. Soaking the seed in a solution of strychnine. 

9. Soaking the seed in a mixture of Paris green and water. 

10. Soaking the seed in an alcoholic solution of arsenic. 

11. Soaking the seed in a solution of arsenic and boiling water. 

12. Soaking the seed in an alcoholic solution of corrosive sublimate. 

13. Soaking the seed in a saturated solution of potassium cyanide. 
In almost every case the wireworms fed upon the grain or seed thus 

coated without injury to themselves, and the investigators were forced 
to the conclusion that it was not practicable to protect the seed by 
means of these substances even were it possible to use them without 
preventing or retarding the germination of the seed. 

Buckwheat, mustard and rape, which are supposed by many to be 
immune crops, were found to be not entirely so, for the wireworms 
in some instances fed upon these plants almost as readily as upon cereal 
plants. 

Insecticides were also used in the effort to destroy wireworms. 
The following were applied directly to the soil : 

1. Kerosene emulsion, and pure kerosene. 

2. Crude petroleum emulsion, and pure crude petroleum. 

3. Poisoned dough. 

4. Bisulphide of carbon. 

5. Salt. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 299 

6. Muriate of potash. 

7. Lime. 

8. Chloride of lime. 

9. Gas lime. 

The results of these experiments showed that as insecticides most 
of these substances are of very doubtful value. Such a large 
amount would have to be used in many instances as to completely 
destroy all vegetation; and the cost would be so excessive as to make 
their application impracticable. 

The following methods were found of value: 

1. Trapping the wireworms and beetles by means of lanterns, 
and in some cases by means of poisoned dough placed under boards 
in infested spots. 

2. Plowing late in fall and keeping the earth stirred more or less up 
to the time winter sets in. By this means large numbers of the newly 
transformed pupae, which do not become fully hard until spring, are 
destroyed. It must not be supposed, however, that all of the wire- 
worms are killed by such treatment, for the ordinary wireworms spend 
from 3 to 5 years in the ground feeding on the roots of plants before 
they appear as adult beetles. It is only when the wireworms are 
transforming into pupae in the fall that they are very sensitive to dis- 
turbance of any kind. When the worms are numerous in small areas, 
especially in spots on low, poorly drained land, they may be easily 
trapped by placing under boards bunches of clover or sweetened bran 
poisoned with Paris green. 

3. A short rotation of crops, in which the fields are not allowed to 
remain more than two seasons in grass land, will be found very effective. 
It is frequently observed that wireworms are more destructive during 
the second season after the sod is plowed up than the first. This is 
because there is sufficient vegetable matter in the soil during the first 
season to furnish a plentiful supply of food; but with the gradual rot- 
ting of the soil from another season's plowing the food is removed and 
wireworms then take to the roots of the growing plants. With the 
breaking up and thorough working over of grass land in the fall, much 
of the old vegetable matter may be destroyed (see Part IV). 

4. By the application of mineral fertilizers, it is often possible to 
force the crops in the following season in spite of the wireworms. 
(Consult Bull. ;^^, Cornell; Bull. 44, 111. Agr. Exp. Stn.) 



300 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



BUPRESTIDiE (METALLIC WOOD BORERS) 

Common Genera (after Blatchley) : 

A. Hind coxal plates dilated near base. 

B. Prosternal spine obtusely angulated behind the coxae; epimera of 
metathorax triangular, uncovered. 
C. Mentum entirely horn-like, elytra without yellow markings. — 
Dicerca. 
CC. Mentum membranous in front; elytra usually marked yellow. — 
Buprcstis. 
BB. Prosternal spine acutely angulated behind the coxae; epimera of 
metathorax partly covered by abdomen. Clypeus contracted, scutel- 
lum large, first joint of hind tarsi elongate. — Chrysohothris. 
AA. Hind coxal plates scarcely dilated near base. 

B. Hind tarsi with first joint as long as the three following; antennae 
free; thorax truncate at base; clypeus not narrowed. — Agrilus. 

Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer {Chrysohothris femorata Fab.). — (Con- 
sult Bull. 437, U. S. Dep. Agric.) 

This borer attacks shade 
and forest trees as well as 
orchard trees, and is of common 
occurrence. It attacks un- 
healthy trees by preference 
(Fig. 197). 

Adult. — A dark flattened 
metallic brown buprestid beetle, 
J^ inch long; wing-covers par- 
allel, thin, tapering to a point 
behind, under surface greenish- 
blue; under surface of body 
coppery-bronze. June. 
£gg5.— Yellowish, ribbed, }4^q inch long; deposited in crevices of 
the bark, often several together. 

Larva. — ^Light yellow, i inch long when full grown; thorax broad 
and flattened; abdomen flattened and often curved. Head small and 
concealed by thorax; tunnels formed immediately under the bark, 
sometimes girdhng the trees. Matures in a year and winters as a full 
grown larva. 

Pupa. — Yellowish; duration about 3 weeks, in spring. 
Parasites. — Certain braconids, ichneumonids and chalcids. 




Pig. 197. — Plat-headed apple-tree borer 
{Chrysohothris femorata): a, larva; b, beetle; 
d, pupa. {After Chittenden, U. S. Bur. Enl.) 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 3OI 

Control. — •Application of alkaline washes, of soap, washing soda and 
crude carbolic acid in May and June; wire netting as a protector; 
clean culture; digging out the borers. 

Red-necked Blackberry Borer {Agrilus ruficollis Fab.). Adult. — 
Wing-covers velvety brownish-black; head small, wide, dark, bronze; 
front with a deep median furrow; prothorax bright coppery-red; under 
side black; ^{q ii^ch long. June-July Native. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in July on young canes. 

Larva. — Thread-like, pale yellowish; anterior segment enlarged 
and flattened; head small, brown, jaws black; tip of abdomen with 
two slender dark-brown horns, each with three blunt teeth on inner 
edge; %o ii^^h long. 

Makes spiral tunnels in sap-wood, often causing a swollen appear- 
ance called the gouty gall. Winters as full-grown larva in the burrow. 

Pupa. — Formed in May. 

Bronze Birch Borer {Agrilus anxius Gory). — (Consult Bull. 18, Div. 
Ent., U. S. Dept. Ag.) B^rk of infested birch trees riddled with holes; 
wood showing a labyrinth of burrows made by the larvae, the bark 
showing a number of ridges and the top the characteristic "stag-head." 

Adult. — Olive-brown, 3^^ to 3^^ inch long; last ventral segment 
oval at tip; hind angles of thorax carinate. May-June. Emergence- 
holes semicircular. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in crevices of the bark. Hatch in June. 

Larva. — Creamy- white, ^4 inch long; mouth-parts dark; tip armed 
with a pair of linear, serrate chitinous bars; head flattened. Winters 
in an immature state, becoming full-grown in April or early Ma3\ 

Pupa.-r-Wh.he, J-^ inch long, tapering to tip of abdomen. 

Control. — Remove and burn tree before middle of June; at least cut 
well below dead portion. Pruning useless unless it is extensive, 
for when the top dies usually most of the tree is affected. 

Two-lined Chestnut Borer {Agrilus bilineatus Oliv.). — Destructive 
to oaks in the N. W. States. The eggs are laid in the spring on the 
bark, and the grubs burrow beneath the bark in the growing layer, 
often girdling the tree. 

SCARABiEID^ (SCARAB^IDS) 

Groups: 

A. Abdominal spiracles situated on the membrane; upper surface of head 
usually dilated. — Scavengers, or Dung-eating and Skin Beetles. 



302 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

AA. Abdominal spiracles not situated on the membrane; upper surface of head 
rarely dilated. — Leaf-chafers. 
Common Economic Genera of LeaJ-chafers (after Blatchley) : 

A. Abdominal spiracles in part situated on superior portion of ventral segments; 
the rows of spiracles feebly diverging. 
B. Form slender, elongated; dull yellow; elytra densely covered with 
scales . — Macrodactylus. 
BB. Form robust, heavy; brownish; six ventral segments. 

C. Small, ventral segments free; elytra with regular indistinct 
grooves on disk. — Serica. 
CC. Medium sized, ventral segments connate; elytral disk without 
grooves. — Phyllo phaga= Lachnoslerna. 
AA. Abdominal spiracles (excepting the three front ones) situated on dorsal 
portion of ventral segments, forming two rows which diverge strongly. 
B. Tarsal claws unequal in size. 

C. Elytra with membranous margin; antennae 9-jointed. — Anomala. 
CC. Elytra without membranous margin; antennae lo-jointed. 
D. Elytra with black spots. — Pelidnota. 
DD. Elytra without spots. — Cotalpa. 
BB. Tarsal claws equal in size. 

C. Front coxas transverse; body above convex. 

D. Head and thorax unarmed in both sexes; mandibles narrow; 
brownish yellow. — Cyclocephala. 
DD. Head or thorax (or both) armed in both sexes; mandibles 
toothed on outer side; clypeus bidentate; dark reddish 
brown . — Ligyrus. 
CC. Front coxae conical, prominent; body not convex; antennae 10- 
jointed. 
D. Side-pieces of meso thorax visible from above; sides of elytra 
more or less sinuate; thorax triangular; never uniform black. 
— Euphoria. 
DD. Side-pieces of mesothorax not visible from above; sides of 
elytra not sinuate; hind coxae contiguous. 
E. Body almost glabrous; size large; color uniform. — 
Osmoderma. 
EE. Body pubescent; size smaller; color variegated; thorax 
rounded at base. — Trichius. 

White Grubs (Lachnoslerna = Phyllo phaga, spp.). — White grubs are 
the larvae of May or June beetles, the majority belonging to the genus 
Phyllophaga or Lachnoslerna. The following species: L. fusca, Froh., 
L, anxiaj L. calceala rugosa Melsh, L.Jutilis {gihhosa) ,L.fervida {arcnata) 
Smith, L. implicila Horn, L. hirlicula, L. fralerna Harr., L. Irislis 
Fab., and L. illicis Knoch are perhaps the most abundant (Figs. 
198'and 199). 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 303 




Fig. 19S. — June beetle {Lachnosterna arcuata): a, adult; b, pupa; c, egg; d, newly- 
hatched larva; e, mature larva. {After Chittenden, U. S. Bur. Ent.) 





Fig. 199. — June beetle {Lachnosterna rugosa): a, adult; b, larva; c, last segment of 

larva. {After Forbes.) 



304 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Adults. — Robust, pale reddish, or yellowish-brown to piceous lamel- 
licorn beetles, with long dense hairs on the sternum; about ^4 i^ich long. 
On emerging from the ground they fly about at night in search of food, 
pair in the trees and retreat again to the earth by day and remain in 
hiding. Food plants various. 

Eggs. — ^Oblong-oval, pearly white, translucent; about J^ inch long; 
deposited singly from i to 8 inches below the surface of the soil within 
oval cavities in the centre of balls of earth. Hatch in about 2 weeks. 

LarvcB. — ^Large, soft, white grubs with brownish heads; hinder 
portion of body thick and smooth; ventral surface of anal segment with 
a triangular patch of brownish hooked hairs and with a median double 
row of coarse hairs; anal slit in the form of an obtuse angle. 

PupcB. — Whitish bodies in oval cells. 

Life-history. — The eggs are laid in May and June; the grubs feed 
throughout the next two seasons and in June or July of the third year 
they change to pupae. Two or three weeks later they change to adult 
beetles but remain in their pupal cells until the following spring. In 
other words, larvae hatched in June, 1913 change to pupae in July, 191 5, 
and the beetles emerge in May and June, 1916. During the winter the 
grubs descend for protection. The hfe-cycle of L. tristis is 2 years; 
longer for all forms in the North than in the South. Not known to 
breed in manure. 

Control. — Fall plowing; utilizing hogs and poultry; rotation of 
crops; collecting the grubs and beetles; spraying trees upon which 
beetles feed (see Part IV). 

Of related genera Ligyrus gibbosiis, L. relictus, Cyclocephala immacu- 
lata, Allorhina nitida, and Euphoria have a i-year life-cycle, while 
Cotalpa lanigera and Polyphylla require 4 or 5 years. Cotalpa 
lanigera is in some districts destructive to raspberry, strawberry, corn 
and grass. 

Natural Enemies. — Pyrgota undata, Tiphia, Asilids, carabids; crows 
and blackbirds; annelids; skunks, Cordyceps. 

Biological facts of importance have been obtained in recent years 
(see Bull. 116, 186, 187, 111. Agr. Exp. Station, and Farmers' Bull. 54.3, 
U. S. Dept. Agric.) regarding the habits of White Grubs. These may 
be summarized as follows: 

(a) Some species, L. tristis and L far da have a life-cycle of 2 years, but most 
others have a cycle of 3 or 4 years. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 305 

(b) The life-cycle tends to lengthen northward. 

(c) The adult beetles feed on the leaves of oak, ash, elm, poplar, willow, maple, 
hackberry, plum and apple during the night and migrate to the soil in early morning. 
Mating occurs at night. They have been observed feeding on corn and grass. 

(d) The eggs are generally deposited in the high grounds covered by vegetation 
near woodlands. 

(e) Clover, alfalfa and buckwheat are not injured, and small grains are not so 
much injured as are corn, timothy, strawberries and potatoes. 

(/■) As the grubs change to pupae about the end of July, disking infested land as 
soon after that date as practicable destroys large numbers of the tender pupae and 
adults in the ground. 

(g) As grubs are small the first year, and large the second year, plowing up to 
ist of October destroys large numbers. 

(h) White grubs are most abundant in the neighborhood of trees. 

(i) The adult beetles prefer to lay their eggs on (i) pasture, (2) small grains, 
(3) fallow land grown up to weeds, (4) clover and corn, (5) meadow crops 
(Forbes). 

Rough Osmoderma {Osmoderma ^ca^m Beauv.). — Adult. A large, 
bronzy, purplish-black beetle; wing-covers with coarse punctures; 
thorax narrower than wing-covers. Nocturnal; July-September. 

Larv(E. — Resemble white grubs, with a hard, reddish head, and 
horny scales on prothorax. Live in decaying wood of apple, cherry, 
etc., mature in fall. 

Pupa. — Within an oval cocoon made of fragments of wood. 

Bumble -flowei Beetle {Euphoria inda Linn.). — Adult. — A yellowish- 
brown beetle, with wing-covers covered with black spots; body covered 
with fox-colored hairs; under side of body black and hairy; legs 
black; hibernates. 

Eggs. — Deposited in refuse heaps of decaying vegetable matter. 

LarvcB. — Resemble white grubs; head small; mandibles and legs 
short; spiracles prominent; a yellow plate on each side of first thoracic 
segment; anal slit transverse; dorsal locomotion; live chiefly in rotten 
wood or decaying vegetables. 

Rose Chafer {Macrodactylus suhspinosus Fabr.). — (Consult Cir. 11, 
Div. Ent., U. S. Dep. Ag.) Frequently injurious to grapes, peaches, 
plums, roses, etc., destroying the blossoms and newly set fruit. A 
widely distributed pest. 

Adult. — A long-legged yellowish-brown beetle, ^i inch long, covered 
with light hairs; legs spiny and long; end of June-first half of July. 
Feeding for 3-4 weeks. Toxic to chickens and rabbits. 
20 



3o6 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

^SS^'- — Smooth, white, oval; laid singly (24-30) a few inches below 
the surface of the ground; hatch in 2-3 weeks. 

Larva. — Yellowish- white with a pale brown head; J-^ inch long 
when full grown; white-grub like; matures in autumn and hibernates 
in the ground. Feeds on the roots of grasses in sandy areas. 

Pupa. — ^Pupal stage entered in sprng and lasts for 10-30 days; 
^4 inch long, yellowish brown. 

Control. — Spray trees with arsenate of lead sweetened with molasses. 

CHRYSOMELID^ (LEAF BEETLES) 

Common Economic Genera (after Leconte and Horn) : 

A. Head produced; thorax narrower than elytra; mandibles simple, pointed. — 
(Criocerini). 

B. Thorax cylindrical, not constricted. — Crioceris. 
BB. Thorax constricted. — Lema. 
A A. Head inserted in the thorax to the eyes; thorax as broad as the elytra; 
mandibles with several teeth. 
B. Last dorsal segment of abdomen not exposed. 
C. Antennae widely separated at base. 

D, Front coxai transverse. — Leptinotarsa (Chrysomelini). 
DD, Front coxae rounded; 3d tarsal joint bi-lobed. — Fidia 
(Eumolpini). 
CC. Antennae rather close at base; front coxae conical. 

D. Hind thighs slender and front coxal cavities open behind. — 
(Galerucini). 

E. All the tibiae without terminal spurs. — Galerucclla. 
EE. Middle and hind tibia? with terminal spurs. — Diabrotica. 
DD. Hind thighs thickened. — (Halticini). 
E. Front coxal cavities open behind. 

F. Thorax with a feeble transverse impression on 
basal half; hind tibiae with a short terminal spur. 
— Haiti ca. 
FF. Thorax without a transverse impression near the 
base. 
G. First joint of hind tarsus short and rather 
broad; claws appendiculate. — Disonycha. 
GO. P'irst joint of hind tarsus long and slender; 
claws simple; elytra usually with a yellow 
stripe or spots. — Phyllotrela. 
EE. Front coxal cavities closed behind. 

F. Antennae ii-jointed; claws appendiculate. 

G. Thorax with a distinct transverse impression 
near base. 
H. Elytra without hairs. — Crepidodera. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 307 



HH. Elytra with rows of stifT hairs. — 
Epilrix. 
GG. Thorax withoiit a transverse impression 
near base; elytral punctures confused. — 
Systena. 
FF. Antennae lo-jointed; hind tarsi inserted on the 
outer side of tibiae above the apex; elytral punc- 
tures in rows. — Psylliodes. 

Striped Cucumber Beetle (Diabrotica vittata Fab.). — (Consult 
Cir. 31, Bur. of Ent., U. S. Dep. Agr., 1909.) A native pest, destructive 
to squash, melon and cucumber, especially in early spring, both in adult 
and larval stages. Well distributed. Known also as the " Melon-bug " 
and "Striped Bug" (Fig. 200). 





ct ' ^ h 

Pig. 200. — Striped cucumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata): a, beetle; b, larva; 
c, pupa; d, egg; e, sculpture of same; a, b, c, much enlarged; d, more enlarged; e, 
highly magnified. (After Chittenden.) 

Adult. — A yellow beetle % inch long, with a black stripe on each 
side of each wing-cover; head black; under surface mostly black. 
Hibernates. 

Eggs. — One-fortieth inch long, lemon to orange in color, oval; laid 
singly or in groups in the soil about the roots. Hatch in 9-10 days. 

Larva. — A slender white worm-like grub with head, thoracic and 
anal plates dark brown; lives in the soil, feeding on or in the roots, and 
matures in about a month. 

Pupa. — Formed in an earthen cell 2-3 inches below surface; J-^ 
inch long; whitish; duration 1-2 weeks. 

Life-history. — Probably two broods a year. The adults hibernate 
under rubbish, etc., but appear again in April or May. They attack 



3o8 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

cucurbits when set out or appear above ground and later deposit eggs in 
the soil or upon the plants. Beetles of the second brood appear in July. 

Control. — Spray the early and late beetles with arsenate of lead as 
summer beetles do not eat much. Keep vines well covered with 
Bordeaux; use trap squashes; place cheese-cloth screens over plants; 
dust plants frequently with lime, ashes, tobacco dust, etc., to which a 
little turpentine or crude carbolic acid has been added. 

Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle {Diabroiica duodecem-punctata 
Oliv.). — This beetle is a pest of cucurbits and vegetable crops in the 
north and of corn in the south where it is known as the Southern Corn- 
root Worm, Budworm or Drill Worm. There are two broods in the 
north and probably more in the south. 

Adult. — One-fourth inch long, bright green marked with twelve 
black spots; practically omnivorous; hibernates; May-July; October- 
November (Ky.). 

Eggs. — Dull yellow, oval, J^o ii^ch long; laid singly just beneath the 
surface of the soil; April-June; hatch in 7-10 days. 

Larva. — Slender, thread-like, delicate and soft bodied; yellowish- 
white; matures in about a month. Injures the roots, crown and 
growing bud of the young stem. Breeds chiefly in grasses and corn and 
on weeds. 

Pupa. — Formed in the soil; duration about a week. 

Western Com-root Worm {D. longicornis Say) is a corn pest in the 
northern Mississippi valley. The eggs of this species are oval and 
dirty white; they are laid in the fall just beneath the surface of the soil; 
winter over and hatch the following spring after the corn begins to 
grow. The larvae feed on the roots and often kill the plant; they reach 
maturity by August ist, and pupate. The greenish-yellow adults emerge 
in the autumn, and may be found feeding upon pollen and silk of the 
corn plants; also on clover, beans, cucumber, thistle, golden rod, 
sunflower, etc. 

Colorado Potato Beetle (Leptinotarsa decem-lineata Say). — The most 
serious insect pest of potatoes. A native feeder on wild Solanums in 
Colorado, migrating eastward, reaching the Atlantic in 1874. Found 
nearly everywhere the potato is grown in United States and Canada. 

Adult. — An oval, convex, robust ochre-yellow beetle with ten black 
longitudinal lines on wing covers and about 14 spots on thorax; }i-}i 
inch long; hibernates. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 309 

Eggs. — Orange, oval, laid in clusters of 12 or more on the lower 
surface of leaves; hatch in a week. Each female capable of laying 
500-1000 eggs in the course of a month. 

Larva. — At first dark colored; later, variegated red, soft bodied, 
hump-backed, with two rows of spots on each side; matures in 2 or 3 
weeks. 

Pupa. — Naked, yellow or orange colored, in a smooth oval cell 
below the surface of the soil; duration 10-14 days. 

Life-history. — Adult beetles emerge from their winter quarters 
about the end of May, and soon eggs are deposited. The grubs require 
2 or 3 weeks to mature, and the pupa remains about 2 weeks in the soil 
before the adult appears. There are two broods in a year, the summer 
adults appearing in July and the fall adults in September and passing the 
winter deep underground. There is also considerable overlapping of 
stages and broods on account of variation in times of development. 

Control. — Spray with arsenical — Paris green or arsenate of lead. 

Enemies. — Lydella doryphorm, a tachinid; Podisus spinosus and 
Perillus circumcinctus; ground beetles; lady-birds; the crow and 
grosbeak. 

Red Turnip Beetle (Entomoscelis adonidis Fab.). — An injurious 
pest of turnip, cabbage and radish in the Prairie provinces. 

Adult. — Scarlet, with three black stripes along the back; collar 
with a black patch; legs black; smaller than the Colorado potato 
beetle. July and August to October and November. 

Eggs. — Bright red, laid beneath clods of earth, where they pass the 
winter. 

Larva. — Nocturnal; slug-shaped; black; J-^ inch long when full 
grown. 

Pupa. — Formed about an inch below the surface of the ground. 

Control. — Use arsenical. 

Elm Leaf Beetle {Galerucella luteola Miiller). — (Consult Felt's 
"Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees.") Introduced from 
Europe into United States about 1 834. A serious pest in New England, 
and especially in the Hudson Valley, has not yet appeared in Canada. 
The adults eat irregular circular holes in the leaves, and the grubs 
skeletonize the under surfaces. Two broods. 

A dull. — One-fourth inch long ; head, thorax and wing margin reddish- 
yellow; median black line of wing-covers separated from lateral black 



3IO 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



stripes by greenish-yellow or white at the base; and elongated black spot 
in each wing-cover. Eyes and median spot on head coal black; a dorsal 
and two lateral black spots on thorax. Antennae golden yellow with 
brownish markings; legs yellowish with tibiae and tarsi marked with 
brown. Under surface of head and prothorax yellowish, that of meta- 
thorax and abdomen black. Hibernates under rubbish and in shelters. 

Eggs. — Orange yellow, fusiform, attached by larger end; laid in 
irregular rows in clusters on under surface of leaf in June; second brood 
in July; hatch in 5-6 days. 

Larva. — When full grown 3^^ inch long, somewhat flattened, striped 
dorsally and laterally with yellow stripes; tubercles prominent; under 
surface yellowish. Black dominates in young stages. Duration 15- 
20 days. 

Pupa. — -Bright orange yellow, ^i inch long; dorsal surface very con- 
vex. Duration 7-24 days according to temperature. 

Control. — Spray when leaves are fully unfolded, and 3 weeks 
later with arsenate of lead (3 lb. to 40 or 50 gal. water). 

Western Willow Leaf Beetle (Galerucella decora Say). — A serious 
pest of willows and poplars in some of the prairie provinces and states. 
Breeds chiefly in willows. 

Adult. — ^Small, dark yellowish or brownish, rather fiat; ^{q inch 
long. Hibernates. May-June. 

Eggs. — ^Laid on the leaves of willow and poplar. 

Larva. — Both larva and adult feed on the leaves. 

Control. — Spray the grubs with arsenical and lime. When adults 
occur in large numbers keep them from the most valuable trees with 
smudges of damp manure, etc., and spray with lead arsenate (4 lb. to 
50 gal. of water). 

The following four Chrysomelids also are injurious to willows and 
cotton woods in the northern prairie sections: 

Cherry Leaf Beetle (Galerucella cavicollis Lee.) did considerable in- 
jury in 191 5 to cherry and peach trees in New York, Pennsylvania 
and West Virginia. The adults attack the leaves. 

Streaked Cottonwood Leaf Beetle {Lina scripta Fab.) having dull 
reddish or greenish-yellow elytra with elongate black spots, and sides 
of thorax yellow and disk dark metallic green. 

Unspotted Aspen Leaf Beetle {Lina tremulce Fab.) with dull yellow 
elytra without spots, and thorax green. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 31I 

Interrupted Cottonwood Leaf Beetle {Lina interrupta Fab.) having 
reddish-yellow elytra with rounded black spots, or transverse black 
bands. 

Fruit Tree Leaf Syneta {Syneta albida Lee). — A small brown or 
yellowish-white leaf beetle, j/^ inch long, is sometimes injurious to fruit 
trees in the spring in British Columbia and Oregon. 




Fig. 201. — The Rrape root worm (Fidia vilicida): a, beetle; b, eggs natural 
size under fold of bark and mueh enlarged at side; c, young larva; d, full grown 
larva; e, pupa; /, injury to leaf by beetles; g, injury to roots by larvae. {After 
Marlalt, U. S. Bur. Ent.) 

Grape Root Worm (Fidia viticida Walsh).— A native American 
insect, and widely distributed (Fig. 201). 

Adult. — A small brownish beetle, J^ inch long; covered with whitish 
hairs; body stout and legs long; June- July; eating holes in the leaves 
of grape. 

Eggs. — ^ Whitish-yellow, cylindrical, 3-^5 inch long; laid in. masses of 
25-40 beneath old bark; hatch in 9-12 days. 

Larva. — Young grub feeds on roots and becomes nearly full grown 



312 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



by fall. Winters deeper in the soil, but resumes feeding in the spring. 
Full grown grub ^-g inch long, whitish. 

Pupa. — Formed in an earthen cell 2-3 inches below surface; }yi inch 
long; whitish; head, thorax, and tip of abdomen pinkish and spiny. 
Duration about 2 weeks in June. 

Control. — Spray with arsenate of lead and molasses in late June 
and early July; stir the soil in June. 





Fig. 202. — The common asparagus beetle: a, beetle; b, egg; c, newly hatched 
larvae; d, full grown larvas; e, pupa. All enlarged. (After Chittenden.) 



Asparagus. Beetles. — The two species of Asparagus Beetles have 
come from Europe. They injure the tender shoots in the early season, 
rendering them unfit for market, and later they eat the leaves of the 
tall seedlings. 

Steel-blue Asparagus Beetle {Crioceris asparagi Linn.). — Adult 
A small beetle }/^ inch long, blue-black; thorax red; wing-covers 
yellow and black with orange margin. Feeds on the foliage. 

Eggs. — Dark brown, oval; J^e ii^ch long; laid on end on the buds 
and stems of leaves in a row in early spring; hatch in 3-8 days 
(Fig. 202). 

Larva. — Head and legs black; body dark grey or olive; }'^ inch long, 
soft, fleshy, and wrinkled; matures in 10-14 days. Feeds on the foliage. 

Pupa. — Yellowish in a rounded earth-covered cocoon in the ground 
just beneath the surface; beetle emerges in about a week. 

Parasites, etc. — ■Megilla maculata, Hippodamia convergens, Podisus 
sp., and Tetrastichus asparagi Cwf'd, a chalcid. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS " 313 

Twelve-Spotted Asparagus Beetle {Crioceris 1 2-punctata) . A dult. — 
Wings orange-red with 12 black spots. Feeds on the foliage. 

^^g^- — ^Laid singly on side, mostly near the ends of old 
shoots. 

Larva. — Three-tenth inch long; head brownish and body yellowish. 
Feeds within the growing berry. 

Pupa. — As in C. asparagi. 

Control. — Allow chickens the run of the patch; keep all asparagus 
cut down except the marketable shoots and cut these every day or two; 
allow some shoots to grow as traps and spray 'these with arsenate of 
lead; dust air-slacked lime over the plants while they are wet with 
dew; beat or brush the larvae from the plants to the bare ground, 
where many will die. 

Strawberry Root Borer {Typophorus canellus Fab.). Adult. — 
Small, Jg inch long; black to reddish-yellow; black spots on wing-covers. 
August. Hibernates under mulch. One brood a year. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in spring (May- June) on or near the surface of the 
ground. 

Larva. — Full grown in July-August; feeds on roots of straw- 
berry. 

Pw/)a.— Formed in a small smooth-lined earthen cell. 

Other Strawberry Root Borers are Graphops puhescens Mels., a 
metallic copper-colored Chrysomelid, and Colaspis brunnea Fab. 

Control. — Adopt short rotation; apply lead arsenate (4-6 lb. in 
100 gal. water) to the leaves when beetles appear. 

Bean Leaf Beetle {Cerotoma trifurcata Forst.). — An injurious bean 
pest in the Eastern Middle and Southern States. The beetles eat large 
holes in the growing leaves, and the grubs feed on the roots and main 
stem just below the surface of the ground. One brood in the North but 
more in the South. 

Adult. — A small yellowish-red beetle marked with black; J^ inch 
long; sluggish; hibernates. 

Eggs. — Orange-colored; laid in clusters of 6-12 near the bean 
plant just below the surface; hatch in 5-8 days. 

Larva. — Three-tenth inch long, cylindrical, milk-white; head and 
anal segment dark. Full grown in 6-7 weeks. 

Pupa. — White, duration 5-8 days. 

Control. — ^Lead arsenate spray. 



314 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Ent.: 211 Maine: Circ. 2 




Flea Beetles 

(Consult Bulls. 19 and s3y U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. 

Div. Ent., Can.) 

Flea Beetles are minute beetles belonging to several genera of the 
Chrysomelidae family. They are leaf-feeding insects, and are char- 
acterized by the large femora of the hind legs, which enable them 
to leap like fleas. 

The following species are the most injurious to cultivated plants: 

Potato Flea Beetle {Epitrix cucumeris 
Harris). — The adult often injures the leaves 
of potato, tomato, cucumber, etc. (Fig. 203). 
Adult. — A shining black minute beetle, 
Jfs inch long; antennae and legs reddish 
yellow; hind femora pitch black; thorax 
sparsely punctate; covered with short fuscous 
hairs; emerges in April and May; again from 
July-September. 

Eggs. — ^Laid on roots of food plant in June 
and July. 

Larva. — A slender whitish grub feeding 
on the tubers and roots, sometimes causing 
pimply potatoes; 3 weeks. 

Pupa. — In small cells about the roots. 
Life-history. — Adult beetles hibernate under rubbish, emerge in 
spring to lay eggs and to attack the leaves. Probably two or more 
broods. 

Control. — Keep leaves covered with Bordeaux; dust with Paris 
green and land plaster (1-20) in early morning. 

The Western Potato Flea Beetle {E. suhscrinata) is quite injurious 
in B. C. 

Turnip Flea Beetle {Phyllotreta vittata Fab.). — Also called the 
"Turnip Fly," frequently injurious to the seed-leaves of turnips and 
radish in June. Two or three broods a season (Fig. 204). 

Adult. — An active shining black beetle, J^o i^ich long; each wing- 
cover with a wavy yellow stripe; femora black; tibiae and tarsi brownish- 
yellow; fifth joint of antennae broadened. 

Larva. — -A slender white grub, J^ inch long, feeding on the roots of 
cruciferous^plants. 



Fig, 203. — Potato flea 
beetle; line at side indicates 
natural size. {After Chit- 
tenden, Bui. 19, N. S. Div. 
of Ent., U. S. Dept. of 
Agric.) 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 315 

Control. — Dust the plants with a mixture of i lb. Paris green and 20 
lb. land plaster on first appearance of ''fly." 

Horse-radish Flea Beetle {Phyllotreta armor acicB Koch). — An oval 
beetle, 3^^ inch long, with yellow wing-covers bordered with black 
and with a longitudinal black band through the middle. The larvae 
bore into the petioles of horse-radish and the adults feed on the leaves 
and gouge deeply into the midribs, causing drying and death. Intro- 
duced from Europe about 1893 (Fig. 205). 

Red-headed Flea Beetle (Systena frontalis Fab.). — Injures grapes, 
gooseberry, sugar beet, horse bean, potato, clover, and other plants. 

Adult. — Shining black, with a red head; punctations on wing-covers 
dense but not coarse; J^ inch long. 





Fig. 204. — Turnip flea beetle. 
Enlarged 12 times. (After Riley, 
U. S. Dept. Agric.) 



Fig. 205. — Horse-radish flea beetle. 
Enlarged 9 times. (After Chittenden.) 



Banded Flea Beetle (Systena tceniata Say). — Injurious in beet fields, 
in vegetable gardens and in orchards. 

Adult. — Black to brownish, with a whitish longitudinal stripe down 
middle of each wing-cover; J^ inch long; omnivorous. 

^gS^' — Elliptical, opaque, light yellow; finely granulated, June- July. 

Larva. — Slender, sluggish, J^ inch long, yellowish- white, narrowing 
toward the front; sutures of thorax with an X-mark; anal segment 
pointed with a crown of spines and four long hairs; winters. 

Smartweed Flea Beetle (Systena hudsonias Forst.). — Sometimes 
feeds on leaves of sugar beets, young apple and pear trees. 



3i6 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



AduU, — Bluish-black, }i inch long. Natural hosts are smartweed 
and dock. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in autumn. 

Pale-striped Flea Beetle {Systena blanda Mels.). — This Flea beetle 
attacks a large number of vegetable crops in June- July. 

Grapevine Flea Beetle {Haltica chalyhea 111.). — (Consult Bull. 157, 
Cornell Ag. Exp. Stn., 1898.) The early adults injure the buds of grapes 




Fig. 206. — The grapevine flea beetle {Haltica chalyhea): a, adult beetle; h, 
larva or grub; c, beetles and larvae on foliage — natvtral size; d, beetle feeding on 
bud; e, diseased beetles. {After Marlatt, U. S. Bur. Ent.) 



and Virginia creeper while the larvae and late adults riddle the leaves. 
A native insect (Fig. 206). 

Adult. — ^A polished steel-blue, or sometimes purplish, flea beetle, J 5 
inch long; antennae and legs brownish black or piceous; thorax distinctly 
wider at base. Hibernates. 

Eggs. — Orange-colored, long-oval; laid in crevices of the bark near 
base of buds, or on the leaves. One-thirtieth inch long. 

Larva. — ^Lightish-brown, J^o ii^^h long; head and thoracic shield 
black; 6-8 shining black dots on each segment, a brown hair on each dot; 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 317 

an elongate middle dot on back; legs black; orange-colored proleg on 
last segment. Full grown in 2-3 weeks. 

Pupa. — Dark yellow, in a smooth oval cell in the ground. 

Life-history. — Adults hibernate under rubbish, and feed in April or 
May on the buds. Eggs deposited in May and hatch in a few days. Larvae 
present in June- July and mature in 2-3 weeks; pupae remain in the earth 
for 1-2 weeks, and transform to beetles in July. There is but one brood. 

Control. — Spray early on the first appearance of the beetles in April 
with arsenate of lead (3-4 lb. to 40 gah water) ; spray with arsenate 
of lead in June- July to destroy the grubs on the leaves. 

Strawberry Flea Beetle {Haltica ignita 111.). — A widely distributed 
pest, but most destructive in the South. 

Adult. — A small beetle, % inch long, green, copper-colored or blue. 
Hibernates. 

Eggs. — Laid on leaves of Evening Primrose. 

LarvcB. — Feed on leaves and pods of Evening Primrose and allied 
plants. 

PupcB. — Formed in the ground. 

One brood in the North, but more in the South. 

Willow Flee Beetle (Crepidodera helxines Linn.) varies from brown- 
ish bronze to metallic blue or green. It eats holes in the leaves of willow, 
and has been reported as feeding on the leaves of young apple trees. 

Red-legged Flea Beetle {Crepidodera rufipes Linn.). — A widely dis- 
tributed beetle in Europe and America. Food plant is the black locust, 
but adjacent orchard trees are often injured. 

Spinach Flea Beetle {Disonycha xanthomelosna Dalm.). — Injurious 
to sugar beets, spinach and lamb's quarters (Fig. 207). 

Adult. — Shining black with a greenish lustre; pro thorax and 
abdomen reddish yellow; legs and antennae pale yellow; J^ inch long; 
October-May and July-September. 

Eggs. — ^Orange, laid on end on bits of leaf; hatching from April- 
July and July-September. 

Larva. — 'Gray, with rows of raised tubercles, each bearing a black 
hair, on segments. Full grown in June- July and September-October. 

Pupa. — In the ground. Duration of first generation about a month. 

The Alder Flea Beetle {Haltica himarginata Say) occurs periodically 
in enormous numbers on alder, willow and poplar. (See Bull. 265, 
Maine Ag. Exp. St.) 



3i8 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Mangel Flea Beetle {PsylUodes punclulata Mels.). — Feeds on the 
leaves of mangels, beets, rhubarb, hops, radish, etc. Probably two 
broods in a season. 

Adult. — Shiny black or dark brassy-green, upper surface finely 
punctulated or pitted in regular rows; J-fo ii^ch long; femora, tarsi, 
basal joints of antennae pale obscure yellowish; hibernates. 

Eggs. — Minute, oval, yellow. 




Fig. 207. — Spinach flea beetle: a, adult beetle; h, egg mass; hh, sculpture of 
egg; c, full grown grub; d, pupa; e, newly hatched grub; /, abdominal segment of 
same; a, c, d, 5 times natural size; h, e, more enlarged; bb, f, more enlarged. (After 
Chittenden, Bui. 19, N. S. Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of. Agric.) 

Larva. — Slender, white, with dusky markings; %6 inch long; lives 
in the ground feeding on roots of various plants. 

Pw/>a.— White. 

Control. — ^Spray hop vines with whale-oil soap solution (i to 5); 
collect by means of tarred shield and feather duster. 

LUCANIDJE (STAG BEETLES) 

Stag Beetle {Lucanus dama Thunb.). Adult. — A large brown 
lamellicorn beetle; male with large sickle-shaped mandibles and a 
smooth broad head; the female with smaller mandibles and a narrower, 
rough head. July-August. 

Eggs. — ^Large, globular, white; laid in crevices of the bark near the 
roots. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 319 

LarvcE. — ^Like white grul)s; live in decaying wood. .^ 

Pupa. — In an oval cocoon made of fragments of wood. 



BRUCHIDiE (PEA AND BEAN WEEVILS) 

Pea Weevil {Bruchus pisorum Linn.). Adult. — A small brownish 
black beetle, % inch long, with characteristic black and white 
markings; sides of thorax notched; abdomen 
projects beyond the wing-covers. Two black 
spots on uncovered portion of abdomen; an- 
tennae ii-jointed; hind femora thickened and 
prolegs with two spines. A native of the old 
world (Fig. 208). 

Eggs. — Yellow, 3-^0 iiich long, spindle-shaped. 

Larva. — White fleshy wrinkled grub, about 
3.^ inch long when fully grown; 3 pairs of 
minute legs. 

Pupa. — White, becoming brown after thresh- 
ing or fumigating; thorax with notched sides; 
formed in the pea. 

Life-history. — Adult winters over and eggs 
are laid on the forming pods. The larva bores 
through the wall of the pod and enters the seed, 
where it feeds and grows. The pupal stage 
lasts about a week. Mature adults develop in 
August, the majority remaining in the mature 
seed all winter. Several grubs may inhabit 
a single seed. 

Control. — Fumigate peas with carbon bisulphide ; drench seed with 
kerosene; store the peas over for a season in tight sacks before planting; 
raise the temperature to i45°F. to kill the weevils. 

Bean Weevil {Bruchus obtedus Say) . A dull. — A small brown beetle, 
about J^ inch long, with wing-covers shorter than the body, and 
''marked with ten impressed and dotted longitudinal lines which are 
broken up into pale yellow dashes and dark brown spots" (Fletcher); 
body covered with short silky hairs; tips of abdomen, antennae and legs 
of a reddish tinge; antennae enlarging toward the tip. Probably a 
native of Central or South America. 




Fig. 208. — Pea 
weevil: a, the grub; b, 
the pupa, under surface; 
c, the pupa, upper sur- 
face; d, the adult weevil. 



320 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Eggs. — Cylindrical oval grey objects, I150 irich long; laid on or in the 
young pods or stored beans; hatch in 5-20 days. 

Larva. — A small whitish fleshy wrinkled 'grub; matures in 11-42 
days. 

Pupa. — White and delicate; enclosed in an oval pupal chamber 
within the bean; duration 5-18 days. 

Life-history. — The larva enters the seed, where it feeds and grows 
until autumn when it changes to a pupa, and a little later to the beetle. 
Propagation may take place for several generations in the dry beans. 

Control. — Fumigate with carbon bisulphide or superheat as for pea 
weevil. 

CERAMBYCIDiE (LONG-HORN BEETLES) 

Common Economic Genera: 

A. Thorax margined; labrum united with clypeus; body broad and depressed. 
— Prionince. 

B. Antennae ii-jointed; body elongate, parallel. — Orthosoma. 
BB. Antennae 12-20- jointed; body stout, broad. — Prionus. 
A A. Thorax not margined; labrum free; body oblong and cylindrical. 

B. Front tibiae obliquely grooved on inner side; last joint of palpi pointed 
at tip. — Lamiince. 

C. Elytra spined; size small. — Psenocerus. 
CC. Elytra not spinose; large size. 

D. Scape of antennae with an apical scar; body elongate. — 
Monohammus. 
DD. Scape of antennae without apical scar. 

E. Tarsal claws divaricate and simple. — Saperda. 
EE. Tarsal claws divaricate and cleft. 

F. Eyes not divided; thorax cylindrical. — Oberea. 
FF. Eyes divided; thorax with blunt tubercle on each 
side and marked with four black spots. — Tetraopes. 
BB. Front tibiae not grooved; last joint of palpi not pointed at tip. — 
CerambycincE. 
C. Base of antennae partly enveloped by the eyes; front coxae not 
conical; eyes finely granulated; scutellum rounded behind; 
tibial spurs large. 
D. Head small; process between hind coxae rounded. 

E. Thorax transversely excavated at sides and with 
three yellow cross bands. — Cyllene. 
EE. Thorax not excavated at sides and without yellow 
cross bands. — Plagionolus. 
DD. Head large; process between hind coxae acute. — Clytus. 
CC. Base of antennas not enveloped by the eyes; front coxae conical. — 
Desmocerus. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 32 1 

Round-headed Apple-tree Borer {Saperda Candida Fab.). — This 
beetle is a common native pest of the mountain ash, apple, quince 
and pear in orchards east of the Rocky Mountains (Fig. 209). 

Adult. — A pretty beetle, ^ inch long, with long grey antennae; 
head and under side of body silvery white, upper surface light yellow- 
ish-brown and with two longitudinal white stripes extending through 
thorax and wing-covers; legs grey. Appears mostly in May, June 
and July, usually in day-time. 

Eggs. — Embedded singly in incisions in the bark, near the base of 
the trunk, and covered with gummy substance; pale rust-brown, oval, 
3-^ inch long; hatch in 2-3 weeks. A female may deposit 15-30 eggs. 

Larva. — Full-grown larva is a yellowish fleshy cylindrical legless 




Fig. 209. — Round-headed apple-tree borer: a, b, larvae; c, female beetle; d, pupa. 
{Chittenden, Cir. 32, Bur. Ent., U. S. D. A.) 

grub, % to ij^ inch long; head small and dark; body tapering from the 
thorax backward. Matures in 3 years. Works in bark and sap- 
wood the first year forming broad, irregular, circular galleries beneath 
the outer bark; bores deeper in the second year, and in the third year 
bores upward into the solid wood and outward to the bark, and in May 
of the fourth year transforms to a pupa, the winter being spent in the 
pupal chamber. 

Pupa. — ^Lighter than larva, with transverse rows of minute spines 
on the back. Duration about 3 weeks. 

Control. — Probe or cut out grubs in fall; apply a carbolic alkaline 
21 



32 2 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

wash in early June to trunks; apply protectors to trunk; spray with 
arsenical to kill adult. Woodpeckers destroy large numbers of the 
larvae. 

Saperda tridentata Oliv. is the well-known elm-borer. The grub 
girdles the tree by burrowing under the bark. 

Raspberry Cane-borer {Oberea himaculata Oliv.). Adult. — A 
slender black cerambycid beetle, }/^ inch long; prothorax yellow, with 
two or three black spots; antennae long, body cylindrical; June. A 
native American insect. 

Eggs. — ^Large, elliptical, yellow. Egg placed in pith of tip of cane 
in a slit between two ring-like cuts about an inch apart. Hatches in 
a few days. 

Larva. — A dull yellow grub with a small dark-brown head; i inch 
long; body cylindrical and segments connected. Burrows downward 
in the pith, often opening at surface of stem. Hibernates near base 
of stem as a larva. 

Pupa. — Formed in burrow in spring. Perhaps this insect requires 
two years to complete its stages. Wilting occurs in July-August. 

Control. — Cut off and destroy the wilted canes as soon as observed. 

Giant Root Borer {Prionus laticollis Drury) . A dull. — A large pitchy- 
black, long-horned beetle ; thorax with three teeth on margin ; wing-covers 
thickly punctate. 

Larva. — ^Two to three inches long; yellowish- white; a small, horny, 
reddish-brown head with hard dark jaws; three years; matures in 
June- July, boring into roots of black berry, grape, apple, and 
cherry. 

Locust Borer {Cyllene robinics Forst.). — Heartwood of infected trees 
shows longitudinal galleries often so numerous as to give honey- 
combed appearance to the wood. 

Adult. — A black long-horned beetle, with three straight yellow 
bands across thorax and five broken or irregular yellow bands across 
wing-covers; % inch long; found on golden rod in August-October. 

Eggs. — Snow-white; deposited in the fall in crevices in the bark 
of black locust trees; hatch in 8-10 days. 

Larva. — Makes winding tunnels deep into the wood; matures in less 
than a year; ^ inch long, dull white, somewhat flattened and club- 
shaped. Winters as a young larva in the soft inner bark. 

Pupa. — Formed in July-August and stage lasts 4 or 5 weeks. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 323 

Three-fourth inch long, stout, flattened, yellowish; dorsum of head 
and first six abdominal segments with chitinous points. 

Control. — Badly infested branches should be cut out and burned 
in winter or spring. Spray infected trunks and branches with kerosene 
(1:2 of water) in late fall after leaves have fallen to kill the young 
larvae in the bark. 




Fig. 210. — The hickory borer (Cyllene picla) on dead or dying hickory. 

Cyllene picta Drury bores in hickory and elm. Adult is velvety 
black with many pale yellow lines across the thorax and elytra 
(Fig. 210). 

Sugar Maple Borer {Plagionotus speciosus Say). — Apparently 
healthy trees are attacked. 

Adult. — -Nearly an inch long; black marked with yellow. Antennae 



324 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



and eyes reddish black; legs yellow; under side of body reddish-yellow, 
variegated with brown. Thorax black with two yellow spots on each 
side; wing-covers black with yellow tips, a yellow spot on each shoulder, 
a yellow curved band, a zigzag yellow band forming the letter W, 
a median yellow band arching backward, and a black curved band 
and spot on the yellow tip. June- July. 

Eggs. — Deposited in summer in slits in the bark of larger limbs. 

LarvcB. — Whitish, flattened legless grubs with brownish mouth- 
parts, excavating shallow burrows^ often several feet long, in inner 
bark and sapwood, and often girdling the tree. When full grown 
about 2 inches long. 

Pupa. — Formed in the end of the burrow. 

Control. — Examine trees for "sawdust" and probe the burrows 
to kill the grubs. 

Oak Twig Pruner {Elaphidion villosum Fab.). Adult. — A slender, 
dark brown beetle, ^^ inch long, sparsely covered with whitish hairs; 
tips of wing-covers with two teeth. July. 

Eggs. — Laid on smaller twigs, between the twig and the leaf stalk. 

Larva. — At first it makes burrows in the wood under the bark; later 
channels at centre of twig, and finally a deep circular groove which 
causes twig to break off. It usually changes to a pupa in the severed 
twig, but sometimes part of the larval and the pupal stage is passed 
outside of the twig. 

Control. — Fallen twigs containing the grubs should be promptly 
gathered and burned. 

Pine Wood Borers {Monohammus spp.). — Several species of Mono- 
hammus are well known as pine and spruce wood borers. They are 
large insects with long legs and long antennae. The following species 
are common: M. scutellatus Say, a bronzy-black form, M. confusor 
Kby., a brown form and M. titillator Fab., rare in the North. Logs 
are preserved from their ravages by putting them in water or by 
covering the log piles with -a thick layer of spruce or balsam boughs. 

MELOIDiE (BLISTER BEETLES) 

Blister Beetles. — (Consult Bull. 43, Div. Ent. U. S. Dep. Agric, 
1903; Bull. 10, 111. Agric. Exp. Stn., 1900; 42d Rep. Ont. Ent. Soc.) 
Blister Beetles are characterized by a long cylindrical soft body 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 325 

and flexible wing-covers, and by a rounded head joined to a small 
thorax by a slender neck. The adults are leaf-feeders, and are gre- 
garious. As larvae they feed on the egg-masses of grasshoppers and 
are, therefore, beneficial. Each female lays 500-600 eggs in a cavity 
in the soil in late summer and the eggs hatch in about 10 days. The 
larva on hatching from the eggs is long-legged, large-headed and active 
(the triungulin stage); and on moulting it assumes the second stage 
(carabidoid) with short legs and relatively smaller head. After 
another moult it assumes the third stage (scarabaeidoid), and with 
the fourth moult is formed the coarctate larval stage (winter stage). 
In the spring another moult occurs before the pupal stage is entered. 
On account of their habit of traveling sometimes like army- worms blis- 
ter beetles are often called "army beetles." Seven species of Blister 
Beetles of economic importance are found in Canada and the Northern 
States. 

1. Black Blister Beetle {Epicauta pennsylvanica DeG.). — Uni- 
formly black and J^ inch long; one of the "Aster Bugs" of the florists; 
serious pest of garden vegetables and flowers; occurs from June to 
October. 

2. Grey Blister Beetle {Epicauta cinerea Forst.). — Uniformly grey; 
J^ inch long; a pest of beans, potatoes, vetch and alfalfa; occurs in 
July and August. 

3. Striped Blister Beetle {Epicauta vittata Fab.). — One- third inch 
long, with four black stripes on back; the "old-fashioned potato-bug;" 
a general feeder; occurs from June to September; eggs laid on plants 
or upon the ground. 

4. Margined Blister Beetle {Epicauta marginata Fab.). — Of a gen- 
eral black color except that the wing-covers are margined with grey; 
a general feeder; occurs from July to October. 

5. Ash-grey Blister Beetle {Macrobasis unicolor Kby.). — Uniformly 
ash-grey; feeds on beets, potato and legumes; occurs in June and July. 

6. Spotted Blister Beetle {Epicauta maculata Say). — With a black 
body which, excepting small areas on the wing-covers, is covered with 
grey hairs. Attacks beets, cabbage, spinach, beans and clover in the 
Western provinces. 

7. Western Blister Beetle {Cantharis nuttalli Say). — Three-fourth 
to one inch long; head, thorax and body metallic golden green; wing- 



326 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



covers variable in color — -purple, green or coppery. Often destruc- 
tive in the West to leguminous crops. June-August. 
Control. — -Spray with arsenical solution. 

CUCUJIDiE 

Saw -toothed Grain-beetle (Silvanus surinamensis Linn.). — A 
widely distributed beetle, feeding on stored grain and their products, 
and on starchy goods (Fig. 211). 

Adult. — -A minute flattened chocolate-brown beetle; margins 
of thorax with six tooth-like projections; Jfo inch long; two grooves 
in thorax; head and thorax finely punctate; wing-covers punctured 
and lined. There may be four generations in a season. 

Lary^.— Flattened, with transverse, rectangular, yellowish, 
chitinized spots above; 6 legs; active. 




Fig. 211. — The saw-toothed grain-beetle {Silvanus surinamensis): a, adult; h, 
pupa; c, larva— all enlarged; d, antenna of beetle. {After Chittenden.) 

Pupa. — White, occasionally enclosed in a delicate cocoon made 
of particles of food. 

OSTOMATIDiE = TROGOSITID^ 

The Cadelle (Tenebroides mauritanica Linn.). — Feeds on stored 
grain and also on other injurious grain insects. 

Adult.—Axi elongate oblong depressed beetle, nearly black; 
elytra longitudinally ridged; head and thorax finely punctate; }i inch 
long; found in granaries. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 327 

Eggs. — Small, white, much longer than broad; hatch in about 10 days. 
Larva. — Fleshy, slender, J-^ inch long, dull white with a dark brown 
head and pro thorax; two dark horny points at posterior end. 
Pupa. — -White; formed in a burrow in wood. 

PTINIDJE (DEATH-WATCH AND DRUG STORE BEETLES) 

Apple-twig Borer (Amphicerus bicaudatus Say). — (Consult Farmers' 
Bull. 70, U. S. Dep. Agr.) Adult. A cylindrical ptinid beetle, J^ 
inch long; dark brown above and black beneath; front of thorax with 
minute rough points; male with two little horns in front, two near the 
ends of wing-covers. Mature in the fall. Bores in early spring into 
twigs of apple, grape, pear, etc. 

Eggs. — Laid in May in dead roots of smilax, or in dead shoots of 
grape. 

Larya. ^Develops during summer, transforming to pupa and beetle 
in fall. 

Other more or less important forms belonging to this family are: 
the Drug Store Beetle (Sitodrepa panicea Linn.) which infests such 
drugs as ginger, rhubarb, licorice, peppermint and seeds; also flour, 
breakfast foods, chocolate, black pepper, coffee, dried beans and 
peas; also books and manuscripts; the Cigarette Beetle {Lasioderma 
serricorne Fab.) which infests tobacco in every form, pepper, ginger, 
rhubarb, rice, figs, yeast cakes, etc.; and the Death Watch (Anobium 
tesselatum) which occurs in timbers and tunneling in woodwork of 
houses. 

LYCTIDiE (POWDER POST BEETLES) 

Several species of Lyctus bore into dry stored sap wood, and are 
known as Powder Post Beetles. The adult insects are small, slender, 
dark brown beetles. Eggs are laid in the wood, and the grubs tunnel 
in every direction through the wood. In a short time the interior 
of the infested material may be reduced to powder. 

Control. — In house furniture remove and burn any replaceable 
infested parts; paint rest of infested surface with kerosene, giving 
several applications as long as boring dust appears. 

TENEBRIONIDiE (DARKLING BEETLES) 

Yellow Meal-worm {Tenebrio molitor Linn.). Adult, — A darkling 
beetle, % inch long, somewhat flattened; head and thorax finely 



328 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

punctured; wing-covers ridged lengthwise; April- June. One genera- 
tion each year; nocturnal. 

Eggs. — White, bean-shaped, J^q ii^ch long; deposited in the meal. 

Larva. — Cylindrical, waxy and slender; i inch long, resembling 
wireworms; yellowish, darker at each end. Mature in 3 months. 

Pupa. — Duration about 2 weeks. 

The Dark Meal-worm (Tenebrio obscurus Fab.) is dull pitchy 
black and has similar habits to the preceding. 

Control. — Subject infested rooms to a temperature of i2o°-i25°F. 
for 6 hours; fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas or carbon bisulphide. 

Confused Flour Beetle (Tribolium confusum Duval). Adult. — A 
small, shining, reddish-brown beetle, },i inch long; flattened, oval; 
head and thorax finely punctate; wing-covers ridged lengthwise 
and sparsely punctate. 

Eggs. — Minute, white, hatching in 6 days. 

Larva. — Cylindrical, wiry, yellowish- white, % inch long; mature 
in 24 days. 

Pupa. — White, matures in 6 days. 

CURCULIONIDiE (WEEVILS) 

Common Economic Genera: 

A. Claws simple, pygidium not exposed. 

B. Antennae straight, club annulated, claws toothed, gular peduncle 
broad. — Ithycerus. 
BB. Antennae elbowed, rostrum with distinct scrobes, gular peduncle long; 
front coxae contiguous. 

C. Mandibles usually emarginate, 2-toothed at tip. — Phytonomus. 
CC. Mandibles bi-emarginate, 3-toothed at tip. 

D. Lateral angles of first ventral segment uncovered. — Lixtis. 
DD. Lateral angles of first ventral segment not visible. — Fissodes. 
A A. Claws appendiculate, toothed or cleft (except in Tyloderma). 

B. Ventral sutures straight, hind angles of prothorax rectangular or 
rounded, prosternum short, broadly emarginate; eyes rounded, 
distant. — A nthonomus. 
BB. Ventral sutures more or less curved. 

C. Beak received in or upon the breast in a pectoral groove confined 
to prosternum; beak long; tarsi dilated; front coxae contiguous. — 
Conotrachelus. 
CC. Pectoral groove extending into the mesosternum, sharply 
limited behind; front coxae not contiguous; metathoracic epimera 
distinct, mesosternum feebly emarginate. — Tyloderma. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 329 

CCC. Characters similar to CC, but mesosternum is deeply emarginate. 
Claws simple and divergent; ventral segments 2-4, equal; sutures 
straight. — Cryptorhynchus. 

Poplar and Willow Borer {Cryptorhynchus lapathi Linn.). — (Consult 
Cornell Bull. 388.) An introduced beetle from Europe, infesting 
poplars, willows and alders from N. Dakota to Maine and Quebec. 

Adult. — A sooty-brown snout-beetle, 3^^ inch long, spotted with 
grey; be^k curved and as long as head and thorax; body thick and 
punctured on the surface; ends of wing-covers, sides of pro thorax and 
two oblique bands on wing-cover light grey. After emerging the adult 
feeds by puncturing the bark of young tender shoots. Mating and egg- 
laying occur 10-14 days after emergence. July-October. 

Eggs. — Cream colored, oval; laid in holes made in bark of branches 
2-4 years old. Hatch in 18-25 days, in August-November. 

Larva. — Burrows in the cambium until nearly full grown, then in the 
wood; a soft yellowish fleshy cylindrical footless grub with a pale 
brown head and darker mouth-parts; 3^^ inch long. Mature in June. 

Pupa. — When ready for pupation the larva enters older wood and 
makes a pupal chamber (i to several inches long) which is filled with 
fras. Pupa whitish-yellow, with brown spiracles; small spines scattered 
over dorsal surface and a pair of strong incurving brown spines at tip 
of abdomen. Duration 10-18 days. 

Control. — Spray trees with arsenate of lead every fortnight between 
July 15th and September ist; apply carbolineum to nursery stock in 
early spring; cut out grubs from moderately infested trees; cut down 
and burn badly infested trees during winter or before July ist. 

Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.). — This snout- 
beetle is a widely distributed native insect and is a serious pest of 
plums, pears, apples and peaches, cherries and apricots on account of 
its punctures and the dropping of infested fruit (Fig. 212). 

Adult. — A stout snout-beetle, J-^ inch long, brownish, and marked 
with grey and black; four black-ridged tubercles on the wing-cover; 
hibernates and emerges just before the fruit buds open. Feeds 
to some extent on the buds, but mostly on the young fruit as soon 
as it is set. Female begins to lay eggs in the young fruit as soon as it is 
formed. Lives about 2 months, laying 100-300 eggs. Makes two 
kinds of punctures in the fruit: egg-punctures and feeding-punctures. 



330 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Eggs. — Oval, white; laid in cavities made by the snout of the beetle; 
protected in the hole by a crescent-shaped slit. Hatch in 4-6 days. 
Deposition occurs mostly in June but continues through July and 
August. 

Larva. — Whitish footless grub, mature in about 15 days; it then 
bores out of the fruit and enters the ground where it forms an earthen 
cell and remains for 2 weeks before pupation. Infested fruit 
drops prematurely (except cherries). 

Pupa. — White; formed in a small cell 1-2 inches below the surface, 
duration about 10 days; first adults emerge about 10 weeks after the 
apple blossoms. 




Fig. 212. 



-Plum curculio: a, larva; b, adult; c, pupa. (Chittenden, Cir. 73, Br. 
ofEnt., U.S.D.A.) 



Life-history. — Insect hibernates as a beetle under rubbiSh, etc., 
and emerges early to feed on buds, etc.; eggs deposited in young fruit; 
larvae tunnel in the fruit for about 20 days, then enter the ground to 
pupate; pupa stage lasts about 10 days; adults emerge to puncture 
the ripening fruit, and hibernation begins about first frosts. Larvae only 
in fruit that has fallen. Punctures produce gnarling of fruit. The 
beetles that emerge during the summer deposit no eggs. 

Control. — Spray thoroughly with arsenate of lead (3 to 40 gal.) 
as leaf buds are opening, and again before and after the blossoming pe- 
riod in the case of the apple. In the case of plum and cherry the 
applications should be made after the blossoms fall. Practice clean 
cultivation and remove rubbish. 

Apple Curculio {Anthonomus quadrigibbus Say). — (Consult Bull. 
98, 111. Agr. Expt. Stn.; Cir. 120, Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 33 1 

Sometimes injurious. Adult beetle distinguished from Plum Curculio 
by following characters: (i) more reddish-brown; (2) snout much 
longer and borne directly in front of the head; (3) wing-covers 
with four prominent humps; (4) abdomen more robust; (5) crescent- 
shaped mark absent. The life-history much the same as that of the 
Plum Curculio, except that the pupal stage lasts about a week. Beetles 
feed but little after they emerge in summer. Larva a hump-backed 
footless white grub, 3-^ inch long. 

Control. — Spray with lead arsenate (3 lb. to 40 gal.) just after 
the blossoms fade, and at intervals of 10 days; gather promptly fallen 
fruit; jar the trees and collect beetles. 

Clover Leaf Weevil {Phytonomus punctatus Fab.). Adult. — "A 
stout, oval, brown, finely punctured curculio," about J^ inch long; 
pro thorax narrower than abdomen; beak about ij^ times as long as 
the head, stout and curved. 

Eggs. — Yellow, oval and pitted. 

Larva. — A green, footless grub with a brown head, and a whitish 
stripe edged with black-red along the middle of the back, tapers to 
each end; lies curled in the ground. Hibernates. 

Pupa. — Cocoon is oval and the pupa has "a yellowish-green head, 
small black eyes, and a dark green abdomen." 

Life-history. — One brood a year, and winters as a partially grown 
larva. In spring it resumes its growth, and reaches maturity in June. 
Pupal stage beneath the surface does not last long, and adult beetles 
emerge in June and July. Eggs laid in September and October, and 
the grubs are partially grown when winter comes. 

Control. — Plow under infested fields after second season so as to 
destroy early stages of insect. 

The Lesser Clover Leaf Weevil {Phytonomus nigrirostris Fab.). — 
More injurious in Canada than the preceding. 

Adult. — Brown on emergence, later becoming green; snout black; 
thorax rounded with two dorsal brown stripes; length 3 to 4 mm. 

Eggs. — Ovoid, greenish, reticulate, placed beneath epidermis of 
leaf sheath; hatch in yl^ to 8J^ days. 

Larva. — Greenish straw-color; head light brown; pale dorsal stripe. 
Feeding on tender leaf buds beneath sheath, or in flower heads where 
it destroys the florets; 17-20 days. 



332 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Pupa. — In an oval open mesh cocoon usually in flower head; about 
7 days. 

Life-history. — Hibernating adults come forth as soon as clover 
appears in spring. Egg laying commences immediately and extends 
over several weeks. One generation, but all stages found during the 
summer. 

Alfalfa Leaf Weevil {Phytonomus posticus Gyll.). — (Consult Farmers' 
Bull. 741, U. S. Dep. Ag.) A European beetle, introduced about 
1904 into the West, puncturing the stems and eating the leaves of 
alfalfa. The larvae also feed on the tender growths, causing the tops 
to appear white. 

Adult. — A dark brown snout-beetle, %6 i^ich long; body covered with 
black and grey hairs; hibernates in crowns of alfalfa or under grass, 
rubbish, etc.; oviposits in April and June. 

Eggs. — Small, oval, shiny, yellowish; laid in punctures in stems of 
alfalfa; April-July, hatch in 10 days. 

Larva, — A green, worm-like grub, J^ inch long, tapering toward both 
ends; head black; a light stripe down the back. May-July. 

Pupa. — Cocoons globular and composed of network of white threads; 
spun in dead leaves or rubbish on the ground; duration 1-2 weeks. 

Control. — Disk alfalfa fields in early spring and cut about middle 
of May when most of eggs have been laid; use a bush-drag to kill the 
weevil; collect the weevils; destroy weeds and rubbish; spray in April 
with arsenite of zinc solution (4 lb. to 100 gal.); pasture or graze in- 
fested fields after eggs are laid. 

A Clover Leaf Weevil {Tychius picirostris Fab.) is injurious to some 
extent to clover heads on the island of Montreal. The adult is a black 
curculio Jf inch long, and is an introduction from Europe where it 
attacks the flower heads of red clover, plantain and Genista. 

Strawberry Weevil {Anthonomus signatus Say). — (Consult Cir. 
21, U. S. Dep. Ag., Div. Ent.) Adult. A small weevil, Jfo inch 
long, from black to dull red, marked with a dark spot on each wing- 
cover. Snout half as long as body, slender and curved. Hibernates 
July-May (Figs. 213 and 214). 

Eggs. — ^Laid in buds in spring; hatch in 6-7 days. 

Larva. — Feeds on pollen and harder parts of buds. Matures in 
3-4 weeks. 

Pupa. — Formed in a cell in the bud; duration 5-8 days. Injury 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 333 



is done also when the egg is laid; then the female cuts the stem of the 
bud. 




Fig. 213. — 

Strawberry weevil 
(Anthonomus sig- 
nalus). Enlarged. 
{After Riley and 
Chittenden.) 




Fig. 214. — The strawberry weevil: a, 
h, plant showing work on bud and stem; c, 
outline of egg; d, larva; e, head of larva;/, 
pupa; g, bud opened to show egg and punc- 
tures. {After Chittenden.) 



Control. — Plant mostly pistillate varieties; plant only stamina te 
varieties as trap-crops; cover beds with muslin. 

Cotton Boll-Weevil {Antho- 
nomus grandis Bob.). — (Consult 
Bulletin 51, and Farmers' Bull. 
344, Bur. Ent., U. S. Dept, of 
Agriculture.) A serious pest of 
cotton in the Southern States. 

Adult. — A small brownish 
weevil, 3^^ inch long, with two 
teeth at tip of femora of forelegs; 
female lays about 140 eggs. 
Hibernates in sheltered situ- 
ations (Fig. 215). 

Eggs. — Small, oval, white; 
hatch in about 3 days. 

Larva. — A white, footless 
grub with brown head; matures in 7 to 12 days (Fig. 216). 

Pupa. — Soft, white; stage lasts 3-5 days. Average duration of 




Fig. 215. — Cotton boll- weevil: a, beetle, 
from above; h, same, from side. About 5 
times natural size. {After W. D. Hunter, 
U. S. Bur. Ent.) 





334 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

generation about 43 days and there are probably not more than 
four or five generations in a season. 

Life-history. — "The egg is deposited by the female weevil in a 
cavity formed by eating into a cotton square or boll. The egg hatches 
in a few days and the footless grub begins to feed, making a larger 
place for itself as it grows. During the course of its growth the larva 

sheds its skin at least three times, the 
third moult being at the formation 
of the pupa, which after a few days 
sheds its skin, whereupon the trans- 
formation becomes completed. These 
immature stages require on the aver- 
age between 2 and 3 weeks. A fur- 
F I G . 216 .—Cotton boll-weevil: ther period of feeding equal to about 

larva at left, pupa at right About o^C-third of the preceding develop- 
5 times natural size. {After Hunter.) ... 

mental period is required to perfect 
sexual maturity so that reproduction may begin" (Hunter and 
Pierce). 

Strawbeny Crown Borer {Tyloderma fragarice Riley). Adult. — 
A small dark snout-beetle, J:5 inch long; head and thorax black; each 
wing-cover with 3 black spots. Hibernates. 

Eggs. — Probably laid in the crown. 

Larva. — Small white grub mining out interior of the crown; J^ 
inch long; legless; head yellowish-brown. Matures in August. 

Pupa. — Formed in the larval cavity. Adults emerge in late 
summer and fall. 

Potato Stalk Borer {Trichobaris trinotata Say). — Burrows in the 
stalks of potatoes. 

Adult. — A snout-beetle, K inch long, dull black to light grey; three 
black spots at union of pro thorax and wing-covers; snout curved and as 
long as prothorax. Front of prothorax orange-yellow. Hibernates 
in burrows in the old stalk. 

Eggs. — Small, oval, pearly white; laid singly in punctures in 
stalks. 

Larva. — Yellowish- white; head light brown; legless; % inch long. 
Burrows in the stalks. 

Pupa. — At first yellowish- white, later dull brown; }i inch long, en- 
closed in oval greenish cocoon of fras; duration about a month. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 335 

Control. — Burn all the old stalks and rubbish as soon as crop is 
harvested. 

The Black-snouted Rose Beetle {Rhynchites bicolor Fab.) occurs 
chiefly in the Transition zone and injures roses by puncturing the 
flower buds, and blackberries and raspberries by puncturing the 
fruit. 

Bronze Apple-tree Weevil {Magdalis cenescens Leconte). — Young 
apple trees are sometimes severely injured in B. C. and the Pacific 
States. 

Adult. — A slender, blackish-bronze weevil, J^ inch long. April- 
August. Feeds on the leaves. 

Eggs. — Smooth, shining, yellowish-white; 1 aid in holes in the 
bark. 

Larva. — A plump, legless, white grub, 3^^ inch long; burrows under 
the bark. 

Pupa. — Formed in the spring. 

Grape Curculio {Craponius incequalis Say). — (Consult Bull. 730, 
U. S. Bur. Ent.) This snout-beetle is one of the worst pests of the 
grape in the Upper Austral Zone, East of the Rockies, the adult feeding 
on the leaf in the spring and fall and the larva feeding on the pulp and 
seeds of the fruit. 

Adult. — A short, robust, chocolate-brown, snout-beetle about 3^^ 
inch long. Thorax and elytra with prominent acute tubercles, and 
body and elytra clothed with minute whitish scales. 

Eggs. — Oblong-elliptical, smooth, opaque, yellowish; deposited in 
cavities in the fruit during July and August. About 250 laid by each 
female. Hatch in 6 days. 

Larva, — A legless, fusiorm, curved grub; white with light brown 
head; J:^ inch long; body sparsely covered with short fine hairs; 
mature in 10-12 days. 

Pupa. — Short, stout, yellowish- white; eyes and tip of beak reddish; 
occupies a small spherical cocoon formed of earthen grains and lined 
with a delicate membrane. Duration about 18 days. 

Natural Enemies. — Certain members of the following ant genera: 
Solenopsis, Camponotus, Myrmica, Lasius, and Cremastogaster. Also 
the parasites Anaphoridea and Microhracon. 

Control. — Spray with arsenicals on the first appearance of the beetles, 
and again in 2 weeks. 



3>?>^ 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



OTIORHYNCHIDiE (SCARRED SNOUT-BEETLES) 

Strawberry Root Weevil {Otiorhynchus ovatus Linn.). — Adult, A 
small brownish-black snout-beetle; J^ inch long. June and August- 
September (Fig. 217). 

Eggs. — Female lays about 50 eggs in 4 to 1 5 days in the soil. Hatch 
in 21 days. End of June to end of August. 





Fig. 217. — Strawberry root weevil (Otiorhynchus ovatus) and its grub. 
Treherne, Bui. 8, Div. Ent., Dept. Agric, Can.) 



{After 



Larva. — A small white grub % inch long; feeds on roots of straw- 
berry, clover, timothy, rhubarb, rumex; lasts about 7 months. Winters 
partly grown. 

Pupa. — Four to eight inches below surface; lasts from 21 to 24 days. 
May- June. 

Control. — Rotation of crops as two- and three-year plantations suffer 
most; thorough cultivation; growing of suitable varieties; use of 
chickens. 

The Black Vine Weevil or the Cyclamen Borer {Otiorhynchus sulcatus 
Fab.). — Occurs from the Atlantic to the Pacific in Northern U. S. and 
Canada, and is injurious to roots and crown of strawberry, also to 
Gloxinia, Cyclamen, Primula, Maiden-hair fern "n greenhouses. 

Adult. — A black beetle, % inch long, with patches of yellowish hairs 
on the wing-covers. Wing-covers joined together and wings absent. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 337 

It appears in April and May and attacks the foliage of various plants; 
nocturnal. 

Larva. — ^Legless, white to flesh colored, usually curved; head brown, 
body thickest at the middle; ^^ inch long and lives in the soil and at- 
tacks roots of Cyclamen y Adiantum and Gloxinia. 

Feytaud, of France, reports parthenogenetic reproduction of this 
insect, and considers it probable that males appear sporadically. The 
females deposit more than 150 eggs, and reproduction is very rapid. 

Control. — The adults may be caught at night by shaking them from 
infested plants; the grubs in the soil are not readily controlled. 

Peach Leaf Weevil {Anametis granulatus Say). — This weevil is about 
14 inch long, dark brown, oval, robust, densely covered with greyish 
scales. It sometimes damages peach, pear and apple trees by eating 
at night the buds and bark. Widely distributed. 



CALANDRID^ (GRAIN WEEVILS) 

Granary Weevil {Calandra granaria Linn.). — Adult. A snout- 
weevil, J^ inch long, convex, brown; thorax punctate; wing-covers 




Pig. 218. — Grain and rice weevils: a, adult of grain beetle {Calandra granaria)', h, 
larva; c, pupa; d, adult of rice weevil (C. oryzx). {After Chittenden.) 

ridged lengthwise. Four or five generations in a season, each requir- 
ing about 40 days (Fig. 218). 
22 



33^ 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Eggs.— Minute, white, deposited in cavity of kernel. 
Larva. — Small, robust, whitish, legless; one larva to a kernel of 
wheat, but several in corn. 

Pupa. — White, clear and transparent. 

Control. — Superheat for 6 hours at i2o°-i2 5°F.; fumigate with 
hydrocyanic acid gas or carbon bisulphide. 

The Rice Weevil (Calandra oryzce) 
is also of economic importance, espe- 
cially in the South (Fig. 218). 

Com Bill-bugs (Sphenophorus spp.). 
— Adults. Snout-beetles, dull black, 
surface marked with small pits and 
narrow grooves; irregularly oval and 
rounded; 3^^-J^ inch long; hibernate 
under rubbish; single brooded (Fig. 219). 
Eggs. — ^Laid in May and June in 
roots and stems of grasses. 

Larva. — Thick-bodied, oval, footless 
grub, with a hard brown head; feeding 
in corn stem or in root bulbs of grasses; 
June-August. 

S. maidis. — Does injury to corn 
Fig. 219. — The maize bill-bug both as grub and adult. The grub 
{Sphenophorus maidis). Pour times burrows in lower part of stalk, and the 

enlarged. ^ ' 

adult occupies the burrow. Other 
species make holes and slits in the leaves of corn. 

SCOLYTID^ OR IPID^ (BARK-BEETLES) 

Three common Fruit Bark-beetles are Eccoptogaster rugulosus, 
PhthoropUoeus liminaris and Anisandrus pyri, which may be dis- 
tinguished by the following characters: 

A. Venter of abdomen with caudal part bent abruptly upward. 
Antennal club flat and marked by angulated sutures. — Eccop- 
togaster rugulosus (Fruit-tree Bark-beetle). 
AA. Venter of abdomen normal, regularly curved. 

B. Antennal club lamellate, of three separate, laterally pro- 
duced segments ; head visible from above. — PhthoropUoeus 
liminaris (Peach-tree Bark-beetle). 




CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 339 



BB. Antennal club globular; truncate at tip, head deeply im- 
bedded in prothorax whose anterior margin is nearly 
horizontal and invisible from above. — Anisandrtis pyri 
(Shot-hole Borer). (Consult Farmers' Bull. 763.) 

Fruit Tree Bark-beetle {Eccoptogaster rugulosus Ratz.). — Intro- 
duced from Europe; occurs in most states east of the Rockies. This 
small beetle, also called the Shot-hole Borer, injures fruit trees by 
puncturing the bark, and burrowing in the bark and wood, causing the 
death of twigs and leaf buds (Fig. 220). 

Adult. — A small black scolytid beetle 3-fo ii^ch long, with the tips 
of wing-covers and parts of the leg reddish. May- June and August. 





Pig. 220. — The fruit tree bark beetle (Eccoptogaster rugulosus): a, adult or 
beetle; b, same in. profile; c, pupa; d, larva. All enlarged about 10 times. 
(Chittenden.) 

Eggs. — Deposited in little pockets in the brood gallery or chamber 
between the bark and sapwood; hatch in 3 to 4 days (Fig. 221). 

Larva. — Matures in 4 to 5 weeks. A minute legless grub Jf iiich 
long; whitish; head small, larger in front than behind. Larval burrows 
3 or 4 inches long, filled with reddish dust-like fras and at first at right 
angles to brood chamber. 

Pupa. — Pupa formed in a slightly enlarged chamber; duration 7 to 
10 days. Adults make their way out through little round holes in the 
bark. 

Life-history. — Cycle in about i3^^ months; two generations in a 
season in the North and more in the South. Second brood larvae 
winter in the trees. Said to attack preferably unhealthy trees. 
Parasitized by Chiropachys colon Westw., a chalcid. 

Control. — Remove and destroy dead or dying trees before May or 
June; apply a protective wash of whitewash and carbolic acid in June 
and August. 



340 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Peach-tree Bark-beetle (PMhorophlocus liminaris Harris). — 
(Consult Farmers' Bull. 763, U. S. Dept. Ag.) This native borer 
cuts its tunnels between the bark and the wood of peach and cherry. 
Two broods a year. Common in wild cherry in some localities. 

Adult. — Brownish-black, J^o irich 
long; head large and visible from above; 
antennal club lamellate, of three separate 
laterally produced segments. Breeds in 
weak and dying limbs, but in fall bores 




a *h 

Fig. 221. — Galleries of the 
fruit tree bark beetle on twig 
under bark: a, a, main galleries; 

b, b, side or larval galleries; 

c, c, pupal cells. Natural size. 
(Ratzeburg.) 




Fig. 222. — Shot-hole borer (Anisandrus 
pyri). {After Swaine, Bui. 14, En^. Bur. 
Can.) 



holes in healthy limbs from which much sap exudes following season. 
Hibernates. 

Eggs. — Small, white; 80 to 160; laid in niches along sides of egg- 
tunnel or brood chamber in spring. Hatch in 17-20 days. 

Larvce. — White; head yelowish, mouth-parts dark; mature in 25-30 
days. Form galleries off the egg-tunnel. 

Fupce. — Formed in enlarged end of larval galleries; adults appear 
through holes cut in the bark above the pupal cells; duration 4-6 days. 

Shot-hole Borer (Anisandrus pyri Peck). — This borer cuts round, 
black tunnels deep into the wood; in small branches or stems one divi- 
sion of the tunnels partially girdles the wood (Fig. 222). 

Adult. — Cylindrical, black, J^ inch long; antennal club globular 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 341 



and truncate at tip; pronotum strongly bent downward in front so 
as to be nearly vertical. Male wingless, smaller than female, and with 
a curious, humped back. June. 

Eggs. — ^Laid free in galleries in June. 





Fig. 223. — Clover root borer {Hy- 
lastinus obscurus). Natural size at 
right. {After Webster, U. S. Bur. Ent.) 



Fig. 224. — Larva or grub 
of the clover root borer. En- 
larged. {After Webster.) 



Larvce. — Feed on fungus growing on walls of tunnel; mature late in 
season. 

Pupce. — Formed in tunnels and adults emerge through entrance 
hole cut by mother beetle. 

Clover Root Borer {Hylastinus obscurus Marsh). 
— Adult. A small dark brown cylindrical hairy scoly- 
tidid beetle, Jfo ii^ch long; wing-covers coarsely 
punctate (Fig. 223). 

Eggs. — Minute, white, elliptical and shining. 

Larva. — A white stout footless grub with yellow 
head and brown mouth-parts; J^ inch long (Fig. 224). 

Pupa. — White, with a pair of spines at top of head, 
and another at tip of abdomen (Fig. 225). 

Life-history. — There is but one brood each year. 
The adult winters in the clover roots, and lays her 
eggs during May and June in the crown or on the 
sides of the root. The larvae tunnel the root, and 
mature in July; the pupae transform to adults be- 
fore October ist. 

Control.— Vliiw up infested clover fields after the hay is taken off; 
break up clover sod after taking one crop. 

Forest Bark-beetles {Dentroctonus spp. chiefly). — (Consult bulletins 




Fig. 225. — 
Pupa of the 
clover root borer. 
Enlarged. {After 
Webster.) 



342 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



by Hopkins and Swaine.) Reference can be made here to only a few 
of the economic wood-boring beetles that do an immense amount of 
injury to the forests of the United States and Canada: 

1. Dendrodonus horealis Hopk., Attacks spruce of the western forests in Alberta 
and British Columbia. 

2. D. brevicomis Lee, Western yellow pine. 

3. D. engelmanni Hopk., Engelmann's spruce of the west. 

4. D. monticolcB Hopk., Western pines (Figs. 226 and 227). 

5. D. miirrayana Hopk., The lodge-pole pine of the West; not injurious. 

6. D. obesusLec, The Sitka spruce. 





Fig. 226. — The wes- Fig. 227. — Larva of Dendrodonus monlicolce. 

tern pine borer {Dendroc- {After Swaine, Bui. 14, Eni. Bur. Can.) 

tonus monticoloe. {After 
Swaine, Bui. 14, Ent. Bur. 
Can.) 

7. D. piceaperda Hopk., Eastern spruces. 

8. D. pseudotsugce Hopk., The Douglas fir and western larch. 

9. D. simplex Lee, Larch (Eastern). 

10. D. valens Lee, Pinus and Picea. 

11. Dryoccstes confusus Sw., Alpine fir of British Columbia and Alberta. 

12. Polygraphiis rujipennis Ky., Spruces throughout Canada. 

13. Pityokteines sparsus Lee, Balsam fir in the east. 

The bark-beetles are small (1-9 mm. long), brownish or black, and 
usually cylindrical beetles. One group, the Ambrosia bark-beetles 
make their tunnels in the wood whose walls are stained black by the 
growth of the fungus Ambrosia which nourish them. The other 
group — the true bark-beetles — make their tunnels in the bark or 
between the bark and the wood. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 343 

The systems of tunnels show much variation in shape but are often 
distinctive of the individual species. They may be simple longitudinal, 
simple transverse, irregular elongate, irregular short, forked, radiate, 
cave, pith or ambrosia. In some forms the egg-tunnels originate from 
a small cavity, the nuptial chamber, at the base of the entrance hole. 
The eggs are laid in niches along the sides of the egg-tunnels, and the 
larvae make slender mines leading away from the egg-tunnels. At the 
ends of these mines are the enlarged pupal cells. The adult beetles, 
in emergence, bore round holes through the bark. 

With most of the destructive bark-beetles, there is but one brood, 
or a partial second one, each season. They pass the winter as adults 
and larvae in the dying trees entered by the parent adults early in the 
same season. , ,, • 

While most of the bark-beetles breed in dying and dead trees, 
some species attack sound trees. The latter are, therefore, called 
''primary" and the former ''secondary" enemies. Some species, how- 
ever, fall into both classes as they are known to attack both sound 
and dead and dying trees. 

Natural Control. — Several natural factors operate in checking the 
development of bark-beetles. These are (a) weather conditions, such 
as cold and wet seasons; {b) certain hymenopterous and mite parasites; 
{c) certain predaceous beetles; {d) wood-peckers; and {e) certain para- 
sitic fungi. „^ 

Control Measures. — Epidemic and sporadic outJ;;treaks often occur 
in spite of the operation of the natural control factors mentioned above, 
especially in districts swept by fires, or subjected to careless lumbering 
operations where much "slash'' is left. If, however, the slash is 
burned in winter or the trees injured by fire are cut during the first 
winter after the fire, and got into water or sawn before spring opens, 
most of the beetles will be destroyed, if the slabs are burned. 

The cutting and barking of infested trees, with the burning of the 
bark during winter or early spring, may be adopted as a control meas- 
ure. Sometimes cutting and charring the bark will be found sufficient 
to destroy the beetles. 

Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees, Wasps, et al.) 

Principal Groups and Families 
A. Trochanter with two segments; female with ovipositor. 
B. Abdomen sessile or joined broadly to thorax. 



344 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



C. Tibia of forelegs with two apical spurs; female with saw-like 
ovipositor. — Tenthredinidm (Saw-flies) (Fig. 228), p. 345. 
CC. Tibia of forelegs with one apical spur; female with ovipositor 
fitted for boring. — Siricidce (Horntails), p. 350. 
BB. Abdomen joined to thorax by slender petiole or stalk. 

C. Fore wings with few or no cross veins, hence with no closed cells. 
D. Ovipositor issuing before the apex of the abdomen; anten- 





FiG. 228. — Venation of a tenthredinid 
(Janus). (After Comstock.) 



Fig. 229. — Venation of the honeybee. 
(After Comstock.) 



naj elbowed and with one or more ring-like segments next 
to last. — ChalcididcB (Chalcis Flies), p. 353. 
DD. Ovipositor issuing from the apex of the abdomen; antennae 
straight, or if elbowed without ring-like segments. — Proct- 
olrypidcB, p. 351. 
CC. Fore wings with one or more closed cells. 





Fig. 230. — Venation of an ichneu- 
monid. (After Comstock.) 



Fig. 231. — Venation of a braconid. 
(After Comstock.) 



D. Fore wings without a stigma; antennae with not more than 
16 segments and sira.\ght.~Cynipidce (Gall Flies), p. 351. 
DD. Fore wings with a stigma; antennae with more than 16 
segments and straight. 
E. Fore wing with vein between Media i and ist Media 2 
wanting. — BraconidcB (Braconid Flies) (Fig. 231), p. 
352. 
EE. Fore wing with vein between Media i and ist Media 2 
present— I chneumonida; (Ichneumon Flies) (Fig. 230), 
P- 352. 
AA. Trochanter simple; female usually with a sting. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 345 

B. Fore wings without closed submarginal cells. 

C. Abdomen and antennae long; body smooth and black. — Pele- 
cinidcB, p. 352. 
CC. Abdomen and antennaj short; body colored and often sculptured. 
— ChrysididcB (Cuckoo Flies). 
BB. Fore wings with one or more closed submarginal cells. 
C. Abdominal stalk normal. 

D. First segment of the tarsus of the hind leg more or less 
compressed, at least on inner side, and often thickly hirsute. 
— Group Apoidea (Bees) (Fig. 229), p. 356. 
DD. First segment of the tarsus of the hind leg more or less 
cylindrical, neither markedly broadened nor hairy. 
E. Fore wings folded once lengthwise; antennae usually 
clearly bent at an angle; pronotum extending back so as 
to touch or reach above the tegulae. — Group Vespoidea 
(Wasps), p. 356. 
EE. Fore wings not folded lengthwise; hind angles of 
pronotum remote from and below the tegulae. Ab- 
domen appended or pedunculate, oval or broadest 
anteriorly, gradually tapering posteriorly. — Group 
Sphecoidea (Digger and Mud Wasps), p. 356. 
CC. Abdominal stalk formed of one or two knots or scale-like rings; 
antennae flagellum-like. — Group Formicoidea (Ants), p. 359. 

The classification given above is deemed sufficient for the purposes 
of this book, but recent monographs show a breaking up of many of 
the old families into new ones, with new groupings. (See Hymenoptera 
of Connecticut, Bull. 22, State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, 1916.) 

TENTHREDINID^ (SAW-FLIES) 

Currant Stem Girdler {Janus integer 'Norton).— Adult. A slender 
black saw-fly with yellowish legs; male smaller than female, with 
abdomen brownish-yellow. Abdomen in female is half reddish-orange 
and half black. May. Stem girdled by female. 

Eggs. — Deposited in pith of cane; elongate-oval, yellowish-white, 
3^^5 inch long. Laid in May and June; hatch in about 11 days. 

Larva. — One-half inch long, straw color; head darker yellow; thoracic 
segments broadest; tip of abdomen with a horny brown bifid spine. 
Tunnels in the pith. Winters in a silken cocoon. 

Pupa. — Formed in April; white. Wilting of cane occurs in May. 

Control. — Cut off and burn infested canes 8 or 10 inches below 
the girdled part, in June or fall. 



346 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Imported Currant Worm {Pteronus ribesii Scop.). — Adults. Four- 
winged saw-flies, J^^ inch long; female with light yellow abdomen marked 
with black; male smaller and darker; May and July. 

Eggs. — Laid in rows on leaves along the mid-ribs; hatch in 4 to 
10 days. 

Larva. — At first the caterpillar is whitish and with white head; 
after first moult the body is green with black spots on side of body. 
When full grown, % inch long, they lose their black spots and descend 
to ground to pupate. Two or three weeks. 

Pupa. — Formed in an oval brownish silken cocoon on the surface of 
the ground. Pupa of second brood winters over. 

Life-history. — Two broods a year; adults emerge in spring and 
again in July. Broods overlap. 

Control. — Dust or spray with hellebore or with an arsenical poison. 

Larch Saw-fly {Lygceonematus erichsonii Hartig.). — (Consult Bull. 
10, Div. Ent. Dep. Ag. Can.) A serious pest of larch introduced from 
Europe. 

Adult. — A large thick black saw-fly, with second, fifth and part of 
sixth abdominal segments bright red. April-May. 

Eggs. — ^Laid in slits in terminal shoots June-July; white, cylin- 
drical, tapering at each end; J^q ii^ch long; hatching in 8-10 days. 

LarvcB. — Feeding on leaves in June-July; mature in 20 days when 
they descend to ground and spin cocoons; hibernate. Full grown 
larvae with jet-black head and glaucous green body. About each 
segment, except second, double parallel rows of minute dark dots; five 
moults. 

Pup(B. — In dark brown, oval, elongated cocoons, % inch long, 
beneath the surface. 

Parasites. — Pteromalus nematicidus Pack., a chalcid, and Mesoleius 
tenthredinidis, an ichneumonid. 

Birch Saw-fly {Hylotoma pectoralis Leach). — Defoliates birches 
in Quebec and Prince Edward Island, while Fir Saw-fly {Lophyrus 
ahietis Harr.) and Abbott's Pine Saw-fly {L. abbotii Leach) do damage 
to firs and pines respectively. 

Raspberry Web Worm {Pamphilius fletcheri MacG.) — Injurious 
in New Brunswick. 

Adult. — Three-eight inch long; head and thorax black with white 
markings. Abdomen of male black with a broad median transverse 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 347 

yellowish band; abdomen of female with front third black and remainder 
reddish-yellow. Middle of June. 

Larva. — Smooth, bright green, }^ inch long, feeding within a tent 
formed by webbing together the terminal leaves. Hibernates. 

Dock False Worm {Ametastegia glahrata Fallen = Taxonus 
nigrisoma Norton). — (Consult Bull. 265, Bur. Ent. U. S. Dep. Ag., 
1 91 6.) The green worm-like larva of this saw-fly often burrows into 
apples to hibernate. Its natural food plants are dock and related 
plants. Four broods a yea". 

Elm Saw-fly {Cimhex americana Leach). — Feeds on leaves of 
elm, willow, poplar, maple and basswood. 

Adult. — A saw-fly with head and thorax black; body steel-blue with 
three or four oval yellowish spots on each side; wings smoky brown; 
legs bluish-black; tarsi yellowish; antennae short and knobbed. May. 

Eggs. — Elongate or oval, flattened, clear; laid in the leaf. 

Larva. — Three-fourths inch long; yellowish-white, coiled, with a 
black stripe along the middle of back; 8 pairs of prolegs; legs 
greenish-white. Matures in July-August, and forms a tough, coarse 
silken cocoon at base of tree where it hibernates. 

Pupa. — Formed in spring in cocoon. 

Parasite. — Opheltes glaucopterus Holmgr., an ichneumon. 

Raspberry Saw-fly {Monophadnus ruhi Harris). — (Consult Bull. 150, 
N. Y. Agr. Expt. Station, Geneva.) Adult. A saw-fly, J^ inch long; 
female with body black, with segments of abdomen from 2 to 6 
yellowish-white, and under side rusty brown; male black with shoulders 
yellowish- white; May. 

Eggs. — Pear-shaped, yellowish-white, J^o i^^ch long; inserted under 
upper cuticle of leaf; hatch in 7 to 10 days. 

Larva. — At first pale yellowish-green; covered with whitish spiny 
tubercles; mature larva % inch long, green, covered with barbed spiny 
tubercles, brown on back and white on sides; feed for 10 days, then enter 
soil and form small, brown, oval cocoons. Hibernate in cocoons. 

Pupa. — Formed in May, and lasting a few days. 

Strawberry Saw-fly {Harpiphorus maculatus Norton). — (Consult 
Bull. 54, Mo. Agr. Expt. Station.) Adult. A black saw-fly with a 
row of light spots on sides of abdomen; J^ inch long; May. 

Eggs. — Inserted beneath epidermis of leaf; hatch in 2 weeks. 

Larva. — Slug-like, J^ inch long, yellowish with a pale stripe along 



348 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

the back; coiled when at rest; 8 pairs of prolegs; full grown in a month; 
entering soil and forming a cocoon. Hibernates. 

Pupa. — Formed in May. 

Rose Saw-fly Slug (Endelomyia roses Harr.). — This insect is often 
injurious to the leaves of roses. The slug-like larvae eat the upper 
surface of the leaves. The pupae are found in the ground. There 
are two broods each year; June and August. 

Cherry Saw-fly Leaf Miner (Profenusa collarisMsLcG.). — (Consult 
Bull. 41 1, N. Y. Ag. Exp. St.) This insect has been injurious to cherries 
in New York State for several years. It produces blister-like areas 
on leaves. The adult is a small saw-fly 3^^ inch long, appearing in 
May, and the larva passes part of its existence in the leaf as a miner 
and in the ground in an earthen cell. Pupation occurs, in late April 
or early May. 

Plum Web-spinning Saw-fly {Neurotoma inconspicua Norton). — 
Forms ugly nests in the leaves of plum and cherry. 

Adult. — A saw-fly, J^ inch long; wings hyaline with a faint fuscous 
band behind stigma; body, coxae and tarsi black, legs reddish. May- 
June as leaves expand. 

Eggs. — Smooth, elongate, yellow; deposited in two or three rows 
along mid-rib of under surface of leaf. Hatch in about 8 days. 

Larva. — Three-fourth inch long, grey above and yellow or pinkish 
below; head yellow; thoracic shield and anal segment black; full grown 
in a month; feeds on leaves under webs. Passes the winter in an 
earthen cell 6 inches below the surface of the ground. 

Pupa. — In early spring pupa forms near the surface. 

Pear Slug {Eriocampoides Umacina Retzius, Caliroa cerasi Linn.). — 
(Consult Circ. 26, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) The slug-like 
larvae of this European insect are often found feeding on the surfaces 
of the leaves of pear, plum and cherry. 

Adult. — A glossy black saw-fly, 3^-5 inch long; wings with a smoky 
band across the middle. May and June, and August. Two genera- 
tions in the North but one along the Lower St. Lawrence. 

£g^5.— Deposited beneath the upper surface of leaf in a cut made 
by ovipositor; hatch in 2 weeks. 

Larva. — At first white with yellowish-brown head; later, darker 
with brownish-black head; body covered with slime like a slug; anterior 
portion of body enlarged; 7 pairs of prolegs. Full grown in about 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 349 

25 days; Y^ inch long with orange-yellow dry body and light colored 
head; enters the ground for a week where it forms a cell. 

Pupa. — Formed in a cell in the ground, 1-2 inches below surface; 
duration i week. Pupae of last brood hibernate, but some larvae 
do not pupate until spring. 

Parasite. — Pentarthron minutum. 

Control. — Readily controlled by arsenicals or tobacco-soap solu- 
tions, or by dry hellebore or air-slaked Hme. 




Fig. 232. — Western wheat-stem saw-fly (Cephus occidentalis) : c, adult. {After 
Criddle, Ent. Bui. 11, Dept. Agric. Ottawa.) 



Rose-slugs. — Three species infest the rose, the American Rose- 
slug {Endelomyia cethiops Fab.), the Bristly Rose- worm (Cladius 
pectinicornis Fourcr) and the Curled Rose-worm (Emphytus cinctipes 
Nort.). They vary from J^-M inch in length. 

Western Wheat-stem Saw-fly {Cephus occidentalis R. and M.). — 
(Consult Ent. Bull. 11, Dep. Agric, Ottawa.) A native of N. America, 



350 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



probably with species of Agropyron as its host plants. A serious 
pest in the West on wheat and rye (Figs. 232 and 233). 

Adult. — A shiny black 4-winged fly, J-^ inch long; abdomen with 
three prominent yellow rings; legs yellow. Female with a short 
stout horn-like ovipositor. It rests head downward on the stems of 
grasses, with its wings very close together over the body. June 10- 
July 10. 

Eggs. — Minute, white, cylindrical. 

Larva. — Dull yellowish-white, J^-J^ inch long; first two segments 
swollen; end of abdomen with a short blunt projection. Always 
occurs within the stem. Bores downward in the stem, reaching base 




Pig. 233. — Full grown larva of the western wheat-stem saw-fly {Cephus occidentalis) 
{After Criddle, Bui. 11, Ent. Br. Can.) 

about August ist and cutting the stems through level with ground; 
remains all winter in stub until following May. 

Pupa. — Formed in May in stub inhabited by larva. 

Control. — I. Plough infested stubble 5 inches deep in fall, with 
attention at least to worst infested fields. 

2. All infested grasses, such as western rye grass, timothy and the 
prairie grasses next to growing crops should be cut between July loth 
and August ist. 

SiRiciD^ (Horn-tails) 

Pigeon Tremex (Tremex columba Linn.). — Injures elm and maple. 

Adult. — Female a large 4-winged fly, 2 inches long, with a prominent 
yellow horn at end of abdomen; head and thorax reddish-black, ab- 
domen cylindrical, dark brown, with seven yellowish band-like mark- 
ings; male smaller, without horn. June-August (Fig. 234). 

Eggs. — Oblong oval, jointed at ends, 3^^o i^ch long. 

Larva. — ^Large, soft, yellowish, cylindrical, with six true legs and 
a horny point at end of abdomen; boring into wood. Parasitized by 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 351 



Thalessa lunator, a slender, brown and yellow, wasp-like Ichneumon 
with a long delicate ovipositor. 

Pupa. — Formed in burrow within a cocoon made of silk and chips. 

Cynipid/E (Gall-flies) 

The injury done by Cynipids to economic plants is not serious, 
being confined mainly to oaks and roses. (Consult Felt's Key to 
American Insect Galls). 

Eggs are laid in the leaves, stems and roots, and soon gall-like en- 
largements are formed as a result of 
the stimulus of the larvae. The galls 
are closed and are very varied in 
shape. 

The Mossy Rose-gall on Sweet- 
brier, produced by Rhodites rosce 
Linn., is many-celled and consists of 
a number of hard kernels embracing 
the stem, covered with reddish-green 
mossy filaments. 

The Pithy Blackberry-gall, pro- 
duced by Diastrophus turgidus on 
blackberry canes consists of an elon- 
gated, many-celled, ridged, woody, 
reddish-brown gall. 

Pithy Blackberry-gall Fly {Dias- 
trophus turgidus Bass.). Adult. — Black, 1^2 i^ich long; feet and 
antennae red; four wings, transparent and almost without veins. 
Early summer. 

Larva. — White, J^fo ii^ch long, mouth-parts and spiracles reddish; 
hibernates in cells of gall. 

Pupa. — Formed in spring. 

Control. — Cut out and burn infested canes during the winter. 

Several species infest oaks, viz., Amphiholips spp., Holcaspis spp., 
Andricus spp., and Cynips spp., each producing its characteristic gall. 

PROCTOTRYPIDiE (PROCTOTRYPIDS) 

The members of this family, or rather the group Proctotrypoidea, are 
the smallest of insect parasites. They are usually black and without 




Fig. 234. — Pigeon tremex {Tremex 
columba): A, adult; B, larva (with 
parasitic larva of Thalessa attached). 
Natural size. {After Riley.) 



352 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

metallic lustre. Sometimes they occur as secondary parasites on 
primary parasites. The larvae live within other insects, often 
within insect eggs and sometimes within larvae or pupae. The larvae 
of Polygnotus develop within the digestive tract of gall midges, and 
Trichacis in the nervous system of the same midge. Telenomus is a 
common form infesting the eggs of many butterflies and moths. Ano- 
pedius is parasitic on the clover seed midge and the wheat midge, and 
Platygaster on the Hessian-fly. The eggs of Proctotrypids are "ovate, 
with a peduncle at the end." 

The neuration of the wings shows great diversity. As a rule the 
hind wings are veinless. In some sub-families the veining of the fore 
wings resembles that of the Braconids and the Chrysidids and Scoliids, 
and in others the Chalcids. (Consult Ashmead's Monograph of the N. 
A. Proctotrypidae and Brues' Serphoidea in Hymenoptera of Connecticut.) 

Family Pelecinid^ 

Pelecinus obturator Drury is a long black hymenopter (female 
2-2^:5 inches long), parasitic on white grubs {Lachno sterna). It is 
sometimes grouped with the Proctrypids under the Serphoidea. 

ICHNEUMONIDiE (ICHNEUMON FlIES) 

These insects form an important group of parasites upon injurious 
forms. The females lay their eggs either within or upon the host 
larva, and the maggots feed within the host until maturity, feeding upon 
its blood by osmosis through the skin; in some cases, by attacking 
muscle tissues and the fat body, and getting air, probably by attach- 
ment to the tracheae. Cocoons are often spun on the back of the host, 
from which emerge the adults. Some common genera are Ophion 
(light brown with compressed abdomen), parasitic on Polyphemus 
larva, Thalessa (with a long flexible ovipositor) on Pigeon Tremex, 
Pimpia conquisitor on the pupae of tent-caterpillars, the cotton-worm 
and the Brown-tail, P. inquisitor on tussock caterpillars (see Howard's 
Insect Book), and Trogus parasitic on chrysalids of Papilio. 

Braconids (Braconid Flies) (Figs. 235 and 236) 

Braconids are, as a rule, smaller than the Ichneumons, but like the 
latter are valuable parasites. Aphidius and Lysiphlebus parasitize 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 353 

plant-lice, Apanteles tomato worms, cabbage worms and others, Micro- 
gaster Grape Sphinx caterpillars; Meteorus Fall Web-worms. Braconid 
flies are wasp-like, brownish or yellowish-black, and about J^ inch long. 




Fig, 235, — A tomato worm (Phlegethontius sexto), bearing cocoons of the parasitic 
Apanteles congregatus. Natural size. (After Folsom.) 




Fig. 236. — Bassus earinoides. A braconid parasite of the budmoth. Much 

enlarged. 



Chalcidid^ (Chalcid Flies) (Fig. 237) 

The great majority of Chalcis-flies are beneficial as parasites on 
injurious insects. They are minute metallic insects with stout heads 

23 



354 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

and bodies. They are recognized by the branched single vein of the 
fore wings. Their larvae attack many species of caterpillars. Among 
the more common forms are Pteromalus puparum on the pupae of the 
White Cabbage Butterfly; Aphelinus on scale insects; M onodontomerus 
(Breus on the Biro wn- tail and Gypsy Moths; Tricho gramma on many 
caterpillars, and Coslopistha nematicida on the Larch Saw-fly. Tetra- 
stichus, Dibrachys, Coccophagus, Scutellista, Prospaltella, Eupelmus and 
Aphycus are other valuable economic forms. 

The four following species are injurious: 

Wheat Joint Worm (Isosoma tritici F tch.). — (Consult Farmers' 
Bull. 132 and 1006, U. S. Dept. of Agric.) Adut. A minute black 
4-winged ant-Hke fly; J^ inch long. May. Injurious in the East 
on account of the larva living in the stems of wheat, sucking the 
juices and causing a swelling in the stem. Infested plants contain 
one or more hard woody cells in the stem just above the second or third 
joint from the ground, in which live the larvae or grubs. On nearing 
maturity the stems fall" or break at the places of injury. 

Eggs. — Small, white, round-oval. Inserted in daytime, singly at a 
place, in the stem by the sharp ovipositor, but of en as many as 15 
into one stem. Each female may lay as many as 70 or more eggs. 
Hatch in about 14 days. 

Larva. — A yellowish- white maggot, J:5 inch long, tips of jaws brown, 
3 to 4 moults; full grown in 3 weeks; hibernates in wheat straw; 
forms cell in stem. Most of the larvae change to pupae late in Autumn. 

Pupa. — Yellow to black; 3^:5 inch long. 

Parasites. — Ditriponotus aureoviridis, Homoporus chalcidephagus , 
Eurytoma holteri parva, Eupelmus epicasta Walk., all chalcids. 

Control. — Rotation of crops; burning and deep plowing under of 
stubble when practicable, or harvesting of stubble in spring, collecting 
with horse-rake and burning; preparation of good seed-bed. 

Wheat Straw Worm {Isosoma grande Riley). — A pest west of the 
Mississippi; adults emerge in April-May from stubble and lay eggs, 
and the larvae eat the forming heads of wheat. Adults appear again 
in June and lay eggs above the upper joints. Larvae pupate by 
October and winter is passed in the stubble. 

Species of Isosoma (Females) (after Howard) 

A. Mesonotum smooth, polished, shining. — grande. 
A A. Mesonotum rugulose; abdomen longer than thorax. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 355 

B. Pronotal spot minute. — hordei. 
BB, Pronotal spot large, distinct. 

C. Second abdominal segment longer than fourth and fifth together. — 
secale. 
CC. Second abdominal segment shorter than fourth and fifth together. 
— tritici. 

Apple Seed Chalcid (Syntomaspis druparum Boh.). — An introduced 
insect from Europe. Well distributed in the Northern States. Causes 
deformities and corky discolored streaks in the fruit when repeated 
puncturing occurs. 

Adult. — A wasp-like chalcid, bright green with bronzy reflections; 
legs brownish-yellow; wings clear hyaline. Female }^ inch long, 
with long slender ovipositor; male smaller than 
female. June-July. 

Eggs. — Elongate-oval, one end prolonged 
into a slender twisted pedicle, yellowish-white. 
Laid in the seed and hatch in 6 to 8 days. 

Larva. — Spindle-shaped and curved; 3^^ 
inch long; five instars. Feeds on the soft 
kernel until September, then hibernates in the 
hollow seed until spring. 

Pupa. — Dark greenish when mature; dura- Fig. 237. — Pentarthron 
tion about 4 weeks. . T S; Lti'olh.^^"- 

Control. — Collect and destroy apples lying 
under the trees. 

Clover Seed Chalcid (Bruchophagus funebris Howard). Adult, — A 
minute black four- winged fly, J-f 2 ii^ch long. 

Egg. — Elliptical with a slender tube, whitish and smooth. 

Larva. — A white stout footless maggot, }i5-}y{2 iiich long. 

Pupa. — Dark and less than Jf 2 ii^ch long. 

Life-history. — This insect usually winters over in the seed as a 
well-developed larva; the pupal stage is rather short, and the adult 
lays her eggs in May and June. The first of the adults of this brood 
appear in July and August, but some do not come out till the following 
spring. There is much overlapping of stages and the number of broods 
is difficult to determine. Folsom traced as many as three generations 
per year, with a possibility of four. 




356 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Group Vespoidea (Wasps) 

The true wasps are divided into the SoHtary Wasps (EumenidcB) 
and the Social Wasps {Vespidce). The former have similar habits to the 
Digger Wasps (see below), forming burrows in the earth, in wood or on 
twigs of shrubs. In the latter class two genera are common, Polistes 
with a spindle-shaped abdomen, and black ringed with yellow, and 
Vespa, the common hornet or yellow- jacket. The paper nests attached 
to buildings, trees or in the earth are constructed from bits of wood made 
into a pulp, and are provisioned with spiders or insects. The nest of 
Polistes consists of a single comb, attached by a short stem, but that 
of Vespa consists of several layers of combs with a papery covering. 

The White-faced Hornet is well known as the maker and owner of 
the large paper nest. It provides its young with noxious larvae, and un- 
doubtedly does much to control insect life. Occasionally, however, it 
may injure grapes or peaches by eating holes in them. The life-history 
is quite similar to that of the Bumble Bee — males, females and workers 
(undeveloped females) making up the colony. Only the females sur- 
vive the autumn and hibernate. 

Group Sphecoidea (Digger Wasps) 

The Digger Wasps contain a large number of families. (See Com- 
stock's Manual of Insects and Hymenoptera of Connecticut.) They are 
solitary and store their nests with paralyzed insects or spiders. The 
nests vary in structure; some are made of mud attached to ceilings of 
buildings, some made in the pith of elder, sumach, etc., and others in 
sandy banks. The more common genera are Tiphia, Peloposus, 
Sphecius, Stigmus and Trypoxylon. 

Group Apoidea (Bees) 

The bees are grouped into two families, the Andrenidce (Short- 
tongued bees) and the Apidce (Long-tongued bees). In provisioning 
their nests with honey or pollen, or both, which they collect from flowers, 
bees are of great economic importance in the cross-fertilization of many 
flowers. (See Part I.) 

Most of the Andrenidce are miners and make their nests in the 
ground. They are sohtary, each female making her own nest, but 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 357 

frequently the nests are close together. Some of the more common 
genera are Andrena, Halictus and Prosopis. 

To the Apidce belong the Leaf-cutter bees (Megachile), Carpenter 
bees {Ceratina and Xylocopa), Guest-bees (Psithyrus), Bumble Bees 
(Bombus) and Honey Bees (Apis). The Leaf-cutter bees (Megachile) 
make tubular cells out of nearly semi-circular pieces of leaves cut from 
rose bushes and various plants. These cells are placed in burrows 
made either in the ground or in soft wood. 

The Mason Bees (Osmia) construct nests of clay and sand in stone 
walls, old fence posts and trunks of trees. The cells are composed of 
sand, earth or clay mixed with pebbles or bits of wood, all glued firmly 
together. (See Mantcals of Comstock and Kellogg, and Sladen's 
"Humble bee" for details regarding the habits of bees.) 

Social Habits of Bees. — Bees show a gradation from solitary 
forms like Ceratina, Prosopis, Andrena and Halictus to colonial forms 
like the bumble bee and honey bee. This gradation may be repre- 
sented as follows: 

A. Solitary bees. 

B. Queen dies after egg-laying and providing food for larvae. 
C. Nests quite apart. — Prosopis, Ceratina. 
CC. Nests in colonies, but females work independently. — Andrena, 
Anthrophora, Osmia. 
CCC. Females hibernate in companies. — Xylocopa. 
CCCC. Two or more females use a common hole or refuge. — Halictus, 
Panurgus. 
BB. Queen survives to see the brood and watch over the nest. — Species 
of Halictus. 
AA. Social Bees. 

B. Fertilized female hibernates alone. — Bumble Bees. 
BB. Permanent societies with perfect combs. — Honey Bees. 

Biunble Bees (Bombus spp.). — From an economic standpoint Bum- 
ble Bees are of importance as agents in pollination of red and other 
clovers. The over-wintering queen starts her nest in the spring usually 
in a deserted mouse's nest. She places in it some pellets of pollen 
and nectar and on them in a wax cell lays her first eggs. Next she 
constructs a ''honey-pot" for holding the honey collected at the 
entrance to the nest. The larvae feed on the pollen, and when full 
grown — about 11 days after the eggs are laid — form silken cocoons in 
which they spend their pupal period of about 11 days. The first 



3S8 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



brood are small workers who relieve the queen of further work 
except that of egg-laying. Later broods are large workers and the 
last brood consists of males and females. In the autumn all succumb 
except the young queens. 

The males and females of Bomhus are reared after the workers near 
the close of the summer, and mating occurs then. The number jof 
workers is relatively small, 300 in some of the underground-dwelling: 
species to 60 in some of the surface-dwelling species. 

The more common species are B. horealis, B. terricola, B. ternarius, 
B. pennsylvanicus, B. vagans, and B. fervidus. 

Honey Bee {Apis mellifera Linn.). — There are three kinds of in- 
dividuals — queen, drones and neutral workers. The queen is the mother 
of the colony and lays the eggs; the drones are males and relatively 
few. A colony at the beginning of the season contains 30,000 to 
40,000 workers. 

Honey. — Obtained from nectaries of flowers by workers and carried 
in the honey sac in the abdomen. Nectar is stored in cells and the 
surplus water is evaporated by currents of air to 10 to 12 per cent. 
Finished product is stored in wax cells about the brood chambers. 

Wax. — Made from honey and sugar. Gorged workers hang in 
dense masses and plates of wax appear beneath the abdomen in about 
24 hours. The wax is then transferred to the mouth and there masti- 
cated with a fluid excreted by the cephalic glands. Twenty pounds 
of honey are required to make i pound of wax. 

Propolis. — Obtained from buds and used to strengthen the cells. 

Brood. — Egg hatches in 3 days. The grubs are nursed by workers 
on fluids from the mouth; later they are fed on pollen, honey and water; 
after 5 days the grub spins its cocoon, and 13 days later the winged 
bee emerges. 

Duration of Stages. — 



Egg 


Larva 


Pupa 


Total 


Queen 


3 days 
3 days 
3 days 


S}4 days 
6 days 
5 days 


7 days 
15 days 
13 days 


15K days 
24 days 
21 days 


Drone 


Worker 





The queen grub is fed on royal jelly — the nutritious fluid excreted 
by the nurses. 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 359 

Swarming. — As the queen lays about 1000 eggs per day a time 
arrives when a prosperous colony tends to be overcrowded. The 
workers then rear new queens and the old queen collects several thou- 
sand workers about her and emerges to found a new colony. This phe- 
nomenon is known as swarming. Frequently a hive may swarm twice 
or thrice during a favorable season. The expert apiarist may save 
much worry and trouble by inducing swarming artificially. 

Fertilization. — The queen is fertilized by a drone during the nuptial 
flight, when her spermathecae are filled with spermatozoa. She usually 
mates but once, and the sperms are sufficiently numerous to fertilize 
the thousands of eggs which produce workers. The queen may also 
lay some, relatively few, unfertilized eggs which produce drones. 



Characteristics of the more Important Races of Honey Bees- 

F. Phillips) 



(Dr. E 



T>„^„ Color of 
^^^® abdomen 


Disposi- 
tion 


Quality 

as a 

producer 


Cappings 
of comb 
honey 


Remarks 


German 


Black 


Cross 


Poor 


White 


First race introduced into 
America. 


Italian 


Yellow 
stripes 


Gentle 


Best 


Fairly 
white 


Most popular race. 


Carniolan .... 


Grey 


Gentle 


Good 


White 


Some advocates in the 
United States. 


Caucasian 


Yellow 
grey 


Gentlest 
known 


Good 


White 


Recently introduced. 
Good for amateurs. 


Banat 


Black 


Gentle 


Good 


White 


Recent. 


Cyprian 


Yellow 


Vicious 


Good 


Watery 


Now practically abandoned 
in United States. 



GROUP FORMICOIDEA (ANTS) 

Family Formicid^ 

(Consult Howard's Insects, Wheeler's Ants and Formicoidea in Hymenoptera of 

Connecticut) 

Three classes of individuals occur in an ant colony — males, 
females, and wingless workers, the last being undeveloped females. 



360 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

The males and females mate in the air, after which the males die and 
the females tear off their wings. They then build small cells and com- 
mence egg-laying. These eggs and their larvae are first tended by the 
queen but later by the workers. The larvae are white and legless, and 
at maturity spin egg-shaped cocoons. How queens are developed is 
not known, but they and the workers may live for many years. The 
food of ants is quite varied, but is usually of animal origin, especially 
nectar and dead insects. On the whole ants are beneficial. 
As to general habits ants may be classified into: 

1. Hunting ants which prey upon insects, other ants, etc. 

2. Slave-making ants which capture other species and make slaves 
of them. 

3. Honey ants which collect honey and store it in certain members 
of the colony — mostly western forms. 

4. Leaf-cutting ants which bite off bits of leaves, take them to their 
nests, and grow fungi upon them — mostly tropical forms. 

5. Harvesting ants which collect and store seeds for food supply in 
underground granaries — mostly southern forms. 

The colonies or nests occur either in the ground or in decaying 
wood, and consist of irregular cavities that intercommunicate. Often 
above the nests are dome-shaped hills in which the eggs are hatched, 
and the legless larvae and pupae nurtured. 

Ants belonging to the sub-family Camponotince are stingless, and 
here belong the genera Lasius, Camponotus and Formica. Those belong- 
ing to the sub-family Myrmicince are stinging ants, including the genera 
Solenopsis, Tetramorium, Monomorium, Cremastogaster, and Myrmica. 
House and lawn ants may be classified, according to origin, into: 

1. Tropical old-world ants, represented by the little red ant or 
Pharaoh's ant (Monomorium pharaonis Linn.), the crazy ant (Pre- 
nolepis longicornis Latr.), a related species Prenolepis vividula Nyl. 
and Plagiolepis longipes Jerden. 

2. Introduced tropical new- world ants, represented by the Argentine 
ant {Iridomyrmex humilis Mayr.), and Prenolepis fulva var. pubens 
Fovel. 

3. Native Temperate N. A. ants, represented by the thief ant 
(Solenopsis molesta Say), the carpenter ant (Componotus herculaneus, 
var. pennsylvanicus DeG.), the little black ant (Monomorium minimum 
Bckley), the American lawn or corn ant (Lasius niger var. americanus 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 36 1 

Emery), and the European meadow ant or pavement ant {Tetramorium 
ccespitum Linn.)- The three last mentioned species are also fre- 
quenters of gardens and lawns (Fig. 238). 

House Ants {Monomorium pharaonis Linn.). — (Consult Circ. 34, 
Farmers' Bull. 740, U. S. Dep. Ag.; Wheeler's Ants.) These are the 
little red ants that have their nests in the wall, or beneath the flooring, 




Fig. 238. — The little black ant {Monomorium minimum): a, male; h, pupa; 
c, female; d, same with wings; e, worker; /, larva; g, eggs; group of workers in line 
of march below. All enlarged, the lettered illustrations all drawn to the same 
scale. {After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agric.) 



and are nuisances about houses. The black ant {M. minutum) and 
the pavement ant {Tetramorium ccespitum) are also occasionally found 
in houses (Fig. 239). 

Adults. — Worker neuters, winged males and females, and wing- 
less females constitute an ant colony. 



362 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Eggs, — Laid in immense numbers by the solitary queen mother; 
minute, oval, whitish; cared for by the workers. 

Larvae. — Fed by workers. 

FupcB. — White, cared for by workers; egg-Hke but much larger 
than the true eggs. 




Fig, 239. — The little red, or Pharaoh's ant (Monomorium pharaonis): a, queen or 
female; h, worker. Both drawings enlarged to the same scale. {After Marlatt.) 

Control. — Destroy nests with hot water or carbon bisulphide; dust 
with sodium fluoride; trap ants in sponges soaked in sweetened water 
or in a syrup poisoned with arsenate of soda. Formula: sugar, i lb.; 
arsenate of soda, 125 grains; water, i qt.; boiled and strained. 

Lawn or Com Ant (Lasius niger var. americanus Em.). — This ant, 
which is very abundant in the corn-growing districts of the Central 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 7,6^ 



States, is closely associated with the corn-root louse or aphid (Aphis 
maidiradicis Forbes). Forbes has shown very interestingly how the 
ants carry the eggs of this aphis into the underground galleries of their 
nests on the approach of winter, tend them carefully, and in the spring 
carry the young aphids to suitable weeds, transferring them later to the 
corn plants. 

In the control of this aphid, therefore, the best method is to plow 
and harrow in the autumn infested fields so as to break up the ants' 
nests, to destroy the weeds that may serve as temporary food-plants, 
and to practise crop rotation. 

NEAR RELATIVES OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO PLANTS 

AND ANIMALS 

Crustaceans, Arachnidans and Myriapods belong also to the 
great Branch of Animals called the Arthropoda, hence are here termed 
"near relatives" of insects. 

Class Crustacea 

Sow Bugs, Pill Bugs or Wood Lice. — Sow bugs cause considerable 
injury both indoors and outdoors to young growing flower and vege- 
table crops. They occur in dark moist conditions, near dwellings such 
as cellars, outhouses; about walls, cisterns, water 
barrels; under boards, stones and rubbish; in green- 
houses and rockeries. They usually feed at night. 
They are sometimes injurious in mushroom beds 
and to the roots of strawberries. 

The eggs are laid in early summer. The in- 
cubation period varies with the different species — 
in Armadillium vulgar e Latr. about 70 days. The 
young are carried in a pouch formed of modified 
plates on the abdomen of the female. Other 
species are Porcellio Icevis Latr., A. quadrijrons, 
and Oniscus asellus Linn. They have seven pairs 
of legs, and antennae which are 7-jointed (Fig. 240). 

Control. — Cleanliness about outhouses, potting houses, etc.; the 
use of baits of sliced potatoes covered with a thin coating of Paris 
green, or Paris green, sugar and flour (1:2:2), or of bran-Paris-green- 
molasses-orange juice; sprinkling or spraying with kerosene emulsion; 




Fig. 240. — Por- 
cellio Icevis, a common 
sow bug. (After 
Essig.) 



364 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

sprinkling Paris green on the floor of greenhouses and covering it with 
damp boards; trapping by means of inverted flower pots containing 
damp hay or moss; flushing crevices, edges of greenhouse beds, benches 
and ground beneath with hot water or steam; fumigation with NaCN 
or KCN (J^-J^ oz. of cyanide to every 100 cubic feet of space). 

Class Arachnida 

ORDER ACARINA (MITES AND TICKS) 

Abdomen unsegmented, sometimes with annulations; without a 
deep constriction between cephalothorax and abdomen; legs usually 
well developed; body more or less depressed. 

Chief Families and Genera 

EriophyidcB = Elongated annulated forms. Eriophyes — on plants. 

ArgasidcB = Argus, Ornithodoros — on birds and mammals. 

IxodidcB = Ixodes, Dermacentor, Rhipicenlor, Mar gar opus, Boophilus, Amhlyomma 

— on mammals. 
Dermanyssidce = Liponyssus, Dermanyssus — chiefly on birds. 
Gamasid(B = Lcelaps — on Arthropods and mammals. 

TarsonemidcB = Pediculoides, Tarsonemus — on man and grain and other plants. 
TyroglyphidcB = Tyroglyphus, Rhlzoglyphus — on dried fruits and bulbs, and man. 
SarcoptidcB = Psoroptes, Sarcoptes, Chorioptes — producing itch on mammals and 

birds. 
TetranychidcR = Tetranychus, Bryohia — on plants. 
Trombidiidce = Trombidium. Harvest mites. 

(Consult Handbook of Medical Entomology,hy Riley and Johannsen, pp. 259- 
273). 

Family Dermanyssxd^ (Poultry Mites) 

(Consult Bulls. 553 and 801, Bur. Ent,, U. S. Dep. Agric.) 

A most common form is the Chicken Mite (Dermanyssus gallincB 
DeG.), a flattened, elliptical mite, with 8 legs, J^o ii^ch long, distinctly 
reddish after feeding. 

The eggs are oval, smooth and pearly white, and laid in cracks and 
crevices of the wood or straw of the nests and roosts. They hatch 
in 48 hours at summer temperature and young mites become mature 
in less than 10 days. They are most active at night. The young 
larva on hatching is white and has 3 pairs of legs. In about 24 hours 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 365 

it moults and this nymph (first stage) with 4 legs moults in about 
24 hours forming the second stage nymph which moults into the adult. 

Control. — (a) Cleanliness and sunhght, as mites thrive best in 
damp, dirty houses; {h) remove droppings and all old nesting material; 
{c) clean and scrub or wash with water all the perches, roosts, nests, 
floor and walls; {d) spray or paint these with a 5 per cent, cresol, crude 
petroleum, or with 3 parts kerosene and i part crude carbolic acid, 
or with kerosene emulsion. Two or three applications are necessary 
at intervals of a few days. 

When houses are whitewashed 4 oz. crude carbolic acid should 
be added to each gallon of whitewash. It is often advantageous 
to scatter a mixture of three parts of dry slaked lime and one part sul- 
phur with the doors and windows closed. 

Family Argasid^ 

Spinose Ear Tick {Qmithodoros megnini.). — Found attached to the 
ears of domestic animals and jack rabbits. Occurs in the south- 
western U. S. as far north as Nevada and Oregon and is often trouble- 
some. Treated by an injection of a mixture of two parts pine tar and 
one part cotton-seed oil into the ears. (Consult Farmers Bulletin 
980, U. S. Dept. Ag.) 

Family Sarcoptid^ (Scab and Itch Mites) 

The Poultry Itch Mite {Sarcoptes mutans Robin) produces "scaly- 
leg" of fowls, turkeys, etc. It may also attack the comb and beak. 
The disease is contagious. The mites bore under the scales of the foot 
and leg and burrow deeper and deeper into the tissue, setting up an 
irritation, frequently a lameness, and sometimes causing the loss of 
some of the toes. 

Control. — (i) Oil of carraway (i part to 5 parts white vaseHne) rub- 
bed into leg and foot every few days; (2) bathing in warm soapy water 
and applying sulphur ointment or naphthaline mixed with 9 parts lard, 
or 5 per cent, creolin or zenoleum, or vaseline and zinc ointment. 

Itch Mite of Man {Sarcoptes scabiei Latr.). — This pest burrows 
under the skin where eggs are laid. In about a week the eggs hatch 
and the young mites become mature in about 4 weeks. The lesions 



366 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



and blisters formed are very irritating, and the disease may spread 
rapidly. 

Sheep Scab Mite (Psoroptes communis var. ovis Furst). — This mite 
burrows under the skin of sheep forming large areas of crust called 
scabs. From these areas, commonly confined to the neck, back and 
rump, the wool falls away. The disease is contagious. Each female 
lays 15-24 eggs which hatch in 2-3 days; the young mites mature in 
15 days. (See Farmers' Bull. 713, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

Family Ixodid^ (Ticks) 

Cattle Tick {Mar gar opus annulatus Say). — In the Southern States 
this tick causes large losses as the agent responsible for the Texas 




Fig. 241. — Rocky mountain spotted fever tick {Dermacentor venustus) : i, unengorged 
female; 2, unengorged male. (^Year Book, U. S. Dept. Agric.) 

Cattle Fever. It is a dark 8-legged creature. The engorged female 
drops from cattle to the ground and lays its eggs. The young ticks 
(seed ticks) on hatching crawl up nearby herbage and drop on the 
backs of cattle as they brush by. Attached to the skin they feed 
until they become mature. 

Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Tick {Dermacentor venustus Banks). 
— This tick, with others, is able to transmit the so-called "Spotted 
Fever" of man in the Rocky Mountain states. It is possible that the 
ground squirrel of the region serves as a reservoir of the virus. The 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 367 

disease is probably transferred through the saHvary secretion of the tick. 
Dr. Hadwen reports cases' of "tick paralysis" of man and sheep in 
British Columbia due to the bites of this species (Fig. 241). 

D. variahilu Say is a widespread form occurring on dogs, cattle 
horses and man, but apparently is of little economic importance. 

Family Tetranychid^ (Red Spiders) 

"Red Spider" {Tetranychus himaculatus Harvey). — (Consult Bull. 
416, U. S. Dep. Agr., 191 7; Bull. 79, Mass. Ag. Exp. St.) A common 
pest on roses, violets, carnations in greenhouses; cucumbers in the 
vegetable garden; and on many outdoor perennials; and a serious pest 
in Western Colorado on fruit trees, in Central California on hops, and 
in the Southern States on cotton. 

Adult. — Color of female variable— rusty green, amber, yellowish, 
but more often brick red, with pigment blotches on the sides; legs 
pale amber; palpi pale salmon; body oval, pear-shaped, J^o i^ch long; 
color of male rusty salmon, body J70 inch long. 

Eggs. — Spherical; clear becoming opaque; 50-100 eggs laid by each 
female over a period of 7-12 days. Incubation period varies with the 
temperature — -3-17 days. Laid singly on the under side of the leaves. 

Larval stage. — Six-legged, round and colorless; duration 2-17 days. 

First Nymphal Stage. — Eight-legged, oval, darker in color; duration 
2-4 days. 

Second Nymphal Stage. — Females only have this stage; elongate; 
duration 13^^-13 days. 

Feeding is done by means of sharp, slender, lance-hke mouth-parts 
thrust into the leaf, producing spotting. The fine webs spun on the 
under surface of the leaf are probably protective. Reproduction is 
both sexual and parthenogenetic. 

Control. — Spray with water; with lime-sulphur, nicotine sulphate 
and miscible oil, linseed oil emulsion or fish oil soap, potassium sulphide, 
kerosene emulsion; dust with finely resublimed sulphur; clean culture 
or eradication of weeds which harbor mites during winter. 

Clover Mite {Bryohia pratensis Carman). — This is a small red mite 
about Koo inch long which injures the leaves of clover, apple and 
other orchard and forest trees by puncturing the tissues, causing them 
to become yellowish and sickly. The winter is passed in the egg 



368 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



stage, and the small round red eggs can be readily recognized in the 
crotches of fruit trees. There are several generations in a season. In 
autumn it sometimes invades houses. 



Family Eriophyid^ (Blister Mites) 

(Consult Bull. 283, N. Y. Ag. Exp. St.) 

Pear-leaf Blister Mites {Eriophyes pyri Pgst.). — This introduced 
mite is responsible for the reddish or yellowish blisters on the leaves 






■^ \ 


ls 


t 


\ 




Fig. 242. — Pear-leaf blister mite (^Eriophyes pyri). {After Nalepa and Parrott ) 

of pear and apple. These bhsters turn brown later in the season, 
and badly infested leaves drop. Nursery stock is often badly injured. 
The mites Hve in colonies beneath the epidermis, forming blister- 
like galls. Within these galls the minute oval white translucent eggs 
are laid and hatched, and the young mites grow to maturity. They 
then leave by a minute opening on the lower surface and go to new 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 369 

leaves where new blisters are started. The winter is passed as eggs 
beneath the bud scales. The adult mite is white, elongate, 4-legged, 
K25 inch long (Fig. 242). 

Control. — Spray with lime sulphur, wash before leaf buds open. 

In addition, the following Eriophyids occur in orchards: Epitri- 
merus pyri Nal. and Phyllocoptes schlechtendali Nal. on apple and 
pear, Eriophyes phloeocoptes Nal. on plum, and Phyllocoptes cornutus 
Banks on peach. 

Family Tarsonemid^ 

Cyclamen Mite (Tarsonemus pallidus). — This mite is reported from 
many scattered sections as destructive to cyclamens. It destroys 
the flowers and flower buds, and all 
stages may be found there. Attacked 
flowers become distorted, streaked and 
flaccid and die prematurely. In many 
cases they die before opening. Infested 
leaves curl. 

The adult mita is pale brown, Jf 25 
inch long; the eggs are oval and trans- 
lucent. 

Control. — Spray plants with nicotin 
and soap solution when the younge 
plants are transferred from flats to pots, 
and every 10 days thereafter. 




Fig. 



Class Diplopoda 



243. — a common milliped. 
{After Folsom.) 



Millipeds. — Millipeds are often termed "thousand-legs," "galley- 
worms," or "false wireworms." They sometimes occur in rich garden 
soils containing much refuse organic matter, and do considerable 
injury. They attack plants grown from seed, and also gnaw holes in 
potatoes, strawberries and bulbs (Fig. 243). 

The eggs are laid in holes in the soil in the spring, and it requires 
about 2 years for the young forms to reach maturity. They are 
night-feeders. The most common injurious forms belong to the 
Families Julidce and PolydesmidcB. Julus canadensis is dark brown or 
black above with sides spotted with yellow, and is from i to 2 inches 



24 



370 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

long. Jtdus virgatus injures lettuce and /. coeruleocinctus the fruit 
and roots of strawberries. The young millipeds have only three pairs 
of legs. Spirobolus is from 3 to 5 inches long. Polydesmus canadensis 
is a deep brown flattened form. 

Oxidus gracilis is a common pest of greenhouses, sometimes occurr- 
ing in millions in an abundant supply of decaying vegetable matter. 
It attacks sprouting seeds, and burrows into the decaying spots of roots. 
In color it is chestnut-brown marked in parts with lemon yellow. Gos- 
sard says that the whitish eggs are laid in April and May in the soil 
in masses of from 100 to 300 or more and hatch in about 20 days. So 
far as known there is but one generation a year. 

Control. — (i) Trap with slices of beet or potato; (2) mix thoroughly 
with the soil tobacco dust, gas lime (3 tons to acre in fall), or soot; (3) 
give the soil a thorough drenching with kerosene emulsion or two or 
three light dressings of nitrate of soda (100 lb. to acre). 

BRANCH MOLLUSCA 

Class Gastropoda 

Garden Slugs (Limax spp.). — Garden slugs are moUusks and not 
arthropods, but may be treated here. They are frequently injurious 
in moist situations to garden and greenhouse produce. They dislike 
sand, sawdust and ashes as these dry up the secretion of mucus. They 
spend the winter in the ground encased in their own slime. Some 
species, however, winter in greenhouses and remain active through- 
out the year. They are active at night, and feed upon green succulent 
leaves, mushrooms and ripe fruit. 

There are three common injurious species: L. maximus, L. agrestis 
and L. flavus. Slugs differ from snails in the apparent absence of a 
shell, but in reality the shell is reduced to a thin horny plate embedded 
in the mantle. 

The eggs are large, round, transparent, yellowish, occurring 
in gelatinous clusters under boards or refuse. They hatch in spring 
and the slugs become half grown by fall. The adults may live several 
years. Blackbirds, toads, moles, centipeds, and poultry destroy 
slugs and snails. 

Control. — (a) Trapping by placing out shingles or boards is quite 
effective. Examine the traps every morning and crush the slugs col- 



CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMMON INSECTS 371 

lected under them, (b) Liming the soil is also useful, (c) If slugs 
have collected on the plants dust them with a mixture of lime 5 parts and 
fresh hellebore i part. Providing the hellebore is fresh this is very- 
effective and does not injure the plants, (d) Use the bran-arsenic- 
treacle mash as for cutworms, (e) Broadcast salt at night in misty 
weather. (/) Use poultry. (See Farmer's Bull. 959, U. S. Dept. Ag.) 

Nematodes or Eelworms 

Common Eelworm {Heterodera radicicola Greef). — Eelworms, 
although not closely related structurally to insects may be considered 
here in connection with them. They are common pests of roots and 
underground parts of plants, producing root-knots, galls or rough 
warty surfaces. Tomatoes indoors and potatoes outdoors are often 
injured, especially when grown on sandy soil. The males are micro- 
scopic in size and resemble miniature eels, hence the name eelworms. 
The females are glistening pearly white and pear-shaped or rounded, 
about half the size of a pin head. 

Life-history.— The eggs are oval-shaped and are produced by 
the females in great numbers in the knots or galls. They hatch in 
a short time and the young eelworms seek new quarters and feed upon 
the roots of plants producing the characteristic deformities. They 
may pass the winter in their host; or it may be on other plants. The 
young forms may even encyst themselves in the soil. 

The following plants are liable to be severely injured by Nematode 
attacks (Gilbert, Farmers' Bulletin 625): Soy bean, beet, carrot, 
celery, cow pea, crimson clover, cucumber, lettuce, peach, potato, 
squash, tobacco, tomato, watermelon; less severely: alfalfa, asparagus, 
Lima bean, cabbage, sweet clover, cotton, onion, garden pea, radish, 
spinach, strawberry, vetch. The following plants are largely immune: 
barley, corn, grasses, oats, rye, wheat, and cow peas (some varieties). 

Control. — Infested soil in greenhouses may be sterilized by steam, 
carbolic acid (1:20) or formalin; mix the soil intimately with gas- 
lime; rotation of crops; summer fallow; plant clean nursery stock. 



PART IV 
THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 

The effective control of injurious insects demands a knowledge 
of the habits of the insects themselves so that they may be attacked 
at the most vulnerable point. As insects differ greatly in their habits 
and life-history, methods of control must also differ greatly, not only 
with regard to individual insects but also with regard to the crops that 
are attacked. For example, it is obvious that insects that live mostly in 
the ground and injure roots must be controlled in a different way from 
insects that feed on foliage. Moreover, insects that attack the cereal 
crops of the farm cannot profitably be treated in the same way as insects 
that attack the fruit and leaves of garden or orchard crops. 

It has been said that the aim of the economic entomologist should 
be the control of injurious insects at a profit. It may not be possible 
to achieve this aim in all cases, for insects must be controlled sometimes 
for esthetic reasons, not entirely for the losses they cause. Moreover, 
recent investigations go to show that many so-called minor insects 
if left untreated simply because it does not pay to treat them, may turn 
out to be harmful in some indirect way. 

The term "at a profit" used above is rather indefinite. It is 
sometimes impossible to say whether the control of injurious insects 
is profitable or not for there are many factors to be considered. A con- 
trol, seemingly unprofitable from the money standpoint for a particular 
year, may be profitable from the standpoint of the health of the trees 
and of future production of fruit. Moreover, orchardists recognize the 
cumulative effect of continuous spraying. 

Factors of Insect Control 

The factors operating in the control of noxious insects may be 
grouped as follows: 

I. Climatic. — The range and number of insects are strongly 
influenced tiy temperature, rainfall, winds, etc. (see Part I). 

373 



374 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

2. Food Supply. — An important regulator of insect life (see Part I). 

3. Parasites. — Protozoa, bacteria, fungi and insects. 

4. Predatory Animals. — Birds, insects, snakes, toads, annelids, etc. 

5. Cultural or Preventive Methods (see below). 

6. Artificial or Remedial Methods (see below). 

The first four factors are, however, almost wholly beyond man's 
control. 

Methods of Control 

The main practical methods of control of injurious insects may, 
therefore, be grouped into two general classes : (a) Cultural or Preventive 
Methods — those practices of culture or of handling the crop that 
prevent, or interfere with, the development of injurious insects; and 
(b) Artificial or Remedial Methods — those which deal with injurious 
insects when they appear by the use of poisonous or contact substances, 
or other artificial means. 

A. CULTURAL OR PREVENTIVE METHODS 

For most farm crops Cultural Methods are the only practicable 
methods. They are essentially Preventives. The most important 
cultural methods are the following: 

I. Rotation of Crops. — The growing of crops year after year on 
the same land permits many insects which feed on the roots to develop 
and multiply. On the other hand, a good crop rotation makes it 
impossible, or very difficult, for an insect to pass through its life stages 
without being seriously disturbed and its food supply destroyed. 

(a) Some rotations are preferable to others when wireworms and 
white grubs are abundant. For example, where corn is the chief 
crop a rotation of clover, corn, oats is better than forage grasses, 
corn, oats. Professor Forbes, of Illinois, advises plowing the grass 
in early fall, and sowing clover either with barley, wheat, or rye. 
The clover is allowed to stand 2 years and is followed by corn or 
roots. As certain crops such as clover, barley, wheat and rye are not so 
liable to attack as corn, potatoes, mangels and oats they are better 
adapted to follow sod. 

(b) Moreover, if sod infested with white grubs is broken up early, 
sown to turnips or rape, and pastured with hogs in late summer and 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 375 

autumn most of the white grubs will be destroyed by the hogs. As 
the grubs burrow deeply at the approach of cold weather it is not 
advisable to pasture hogs late in the season. Clover is seldom 
attacked by white grubs, hence is useful as a "starvation" crop 
before planting to corn, potatoes or mangels. 

(c) Where the clover root borer is injurious in second year clover 
fields, the sod should be plowed up after the first season. 

2. Good Cultivation. — This involves careful treatment of the soil, 
the crop, and its products. It means careful attention to the waste 
products and the waste places which are breeding places for many 
injurious insects. It means the adoption of deep, late fall plowing 
under certain conditions, which practice is one of the best methods 
of dealing with wireworms, white grubs, cutworms and grasshoppers. 
It means high fertility of soil, and good drainage of the land so that 
vigorous healthy plants, capable of resisting the drains of insect attacks, 
are grown instead of poorly nourished plants which are more likely to 
succumb. 

Timely plowing, planting, and harvesting are often effective 
against some of the worst insects of the farm. For example, two or 
three fall plowings destroy large numbers of maturing wireworms 
and white grubs; early plowing of grass in August destroys the eggs 
and larvae of cutworms and grasshoppers. Late sowing of fall wheat 
prevents Hessian-fly injury; and early cutting of the first crop of 
clover destroys the first brood of the clover seed midge and thus 
saves the clover seed of the later crop. 

The destruction of rubbish, screenings, stubble, dead stalks and 
weeds deprives many hibernating insects of resting or breeding 
places. Such insects are Hessian-fly ''flaxseed," chinch bug, clover 
hay worm, tarnished plant bug, squash bug, stalk borers, etc. 

Cutworms endeavor to lay their eggs in August and September on 
weeds and grasses. Consequently if the land is kept free from weeds 
and the grass is fed or mown few cutworms will appear the following 
spring. 

The application of fertilizers, such as nitrate of potash, barnyard 
manure, wood-ashes, and tobacco dust, is often advantageous in forcing 
the growth of plants that are attacked, and in repelling insects. 

3. Co-operative Measures. — Co-operation among the farmers of a 
district is required for the successful control of certain insects such 



376 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



as the Hessian-fly, the pea-weevil, the codling moth, the San Jose 
scale, the plum curculio, the apple maggot, grasshoppers and many 
others (Fig. 244). 

4. Natural Enemies of Insects. — {a) Farmers and fruit-growers 
can do much to encourage the presence of insectivorous birds among 
the crops. These birds are most important in keeping injurious 
insects under control. 




Fig. 244. — The San Jose scale. {After Alwood.) 

' (b) Frequently, too, hogs and poultry can be utilized to advantage 
in destroying white grubs, cutworms, grasshoppers, asparagus beetles, 
etc., in infested fields. 

(c) Lady-bird beetles, ground beetles, and other predaceous insects 
should be protected as far as possible (see Section relating to the 
Utilization of Parasites, p. 401). 

5. Restriction and Exclusion of Foreign Insects. — It has been fre- 
quently pointed out in the preceding pages that many of the most 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 377 

destructive insects are imported forms. Until recent years no effort 
had been made to exclude foreign insects, but now a rigid inspection 
of plants which may harbor dangerous pests occurs at the ports of 
entry. In some cases plants are subjected to fumigation with hydro- 
cyanic acid gas. 

That such restriction and exclusion are very important is evident 
in view of recent experiences with the brown-tail moth, the white 
Ermine moth, the Mediterranean fruit-fly, and others. On the other 
hand it is advisable to import foreign species that prey upon other 
foreign insects already here as was done in the case of the gypsy moth 
and the cottony cushion scale. 

B. ARTIFICIAL OR REMEDIAL METHODS 

Artificial methods may be conveniently classified as follows: 

1. The application of poisons against biting insects. 

2. The application of contact substances against sucking insects. 

3. The use of poisonous gases. 

4. The application of repellent substances. 

5. The use of protectors. 

6. The use of traps and trap crops. 

7. The use of ditches. 

8. The use of hopperdozers, etc. 

9. Collecting, digging out, jarring, etc. 

10. High and low temperatures. 

I. The Application of Poisons for Biting Insects 

(Consult Farmers' Bull. 908, U. S. Dep. Ag.) 

The three essentials of a good insecticide are: 
(a) Efectiveness against insects. 

{h) Cheapness, both with regard to material and application, 
(c) Harmlessness with regard to insect hosts. 
With regard to Efectiveness , an insecticide must be applied: 
{a) In the proper manner. 
{h) At the proper time. 

When the application of the insecticide is made in the form of a 
spray some form of pump is necessary. In small yards and gardens 



378 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



cheap hand-pumps are usually sufficient; but for orchards pressure- 
pumps, operated either by hand or by power, are essential. With or- 
chards over 5 or lo acres or with high trees power-pumps or sprays, 
capable of giving a high pressure of 150 to 200 lbs. are now generally 
used. An important feature of all spray pumps is the agitator for keeping 
the chemicals in the tank well stirred. Moreover, it is very essential 
that the spraying be done thoroughly and at the proper time. 

Thoroughness of spraying, while largely a matter of personal atten- 
tion, is secured with greater convenience with a pump of high pressure 
and with suitable nozzles, extension rods and hose, 
so that every part of the plant, the tips of the 
twigs as well as the larger branches, is drenched. 

The proper time of application is determined 
by the habits of the insect, and herein lies the value 
of a knowledge of the life-history of the insect. 




Fig. 245. — Knapsack sprayer. 




Pig. 246. — Bucket 
force pump. 



SPRAYING EQUIPMENT 

Outfits for spraying may be classified as follows: 

1. Atomizer sprayer, useful for treating individual plants. 

2. Bucket with force pump, convenient for small areas (Fig. 246). 

3. Knapsack or compressed air sprayer, operated either by hand or 
by compressed air, useful in greenhouses, stables, poultry houses, etc. 
(Fig. 245). 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 



379 



4. Hand-cart sprayer, a small barrel mounted on a hand cart and 
operated by a hand -pump. Useful in gardens. 

5. Barrel sprayer, with force pump operated by hand. Useful in 
small orchards and gardens. 

6. Tank sprayer, with pressure pump operated either by hand, com- 
pressed air, traction gearing, gasoline motor, or liquid carbon dioxide. 




Fig. 247.— An up-to-date spraying outfit in an apple orchard, using the "spra-gun." 
{Courtesy of the Friend Manufacturing Co.) 



In orchard spraying every outfit should be provided with a spray-tower 
so that the tips of the branches may be treated properly (Figs. 247 and 
248). 

Other accessories are strong hose, able to withstand a pressure of 
about 300 lbs. per square inch, half -inch hose being commonly used; 
and extension rods with drip guards and cut-ofs. 



38o 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



The essentials of a good nozzle are: 

1 . Simple in construction, adjustable, light and free from projecting 
parts. 

2. Not liable to dribble on account of wearing of packing or springs. 

3. Easy to clean. 

4. Not liable to clog. 

5. Giving a uniform spray when pressure is constant. 



7T- ' ■■./. <U: 

--.-. ■ . ^ .'-V- ■' " ' %Ji-"^i 

.■■■ ^%->-^'"- --i^*';---' 



.-m*^^ 



C;.;■■•^^■:^^v■■:■V^, 









, sp>-.:f 



"Vii'' ii «5^..-, 



s4 .,..#■<' ■> 



Fig. 248. — Spraying large orchard and shade trees by means of a tank platform and 

two lines of hose. 



y- i ^ 



NOZZLES 

Three types of nozzles are used in spraying operations— the Bor- 
deaux, Vermorel and Disk. 

The Bordeaux nozzle has its opening adjustable by means of a 
stop-cock so that various forms of sprays can be employed. The 
spray is made by a straight stream hitting a lip and breaking up into 
a fan-shaped spray. It is well adapted for vineyard work where Bor- 
deaux and arsenicals are used. When clogged it can be readily cleaned 
by reversing the stop -cock. ''Perfecto," "Niagara," ''Seneca" 
are trade names. 

The Vermorel nozzle has a central opening in front of a chamber, 
into which the Hquid enters at a tangent. It gives a fine cone-shaped 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 38 1 

spray but is very liable to clog. A needle operated by a spring can be 
used to clean the clogged nozzle. It is unsuited to large orchards or 
with large outfits. ''Buena," ''Cyclone," ''Eureka," ''Dewey," 
^'Spramotor, " "Vapor Mist" are trade names. 

The Disk nozzle, known under several trade names, has been evolved 
from the Vermorel for modern power outfits. It is larger and has 
a disk plate at the orifice which may be changed when desired. The 
chamber is broad and flat and the liquid enters it by two spiral grooves. 
As a result a strong rotary motion is given to the liquid which breaks 
up into a fine spray as it leaves the large opening. It is the most satis- 
factory nozzle at the present time. Trade names are "Friend," "Cy- 
clone," "Jumbo," "Atomic," "Mistry," "Power," "Simplex," 
"Tiger," "Whirlpool." 

The "Nusystem" or "Spra-gun" Nozzle is an improved form of the 
Disk. It has a large chamber, entered by several spiral grooves, at one 
end of a heavy brass rod, and an adjuster at the other end. Near this 
end is an opening for attachment to the hose (Fig. 247). 

COST OF SPRAYING 

The cost of spraying depends on: (i) the materials used, (2) the 
location and size of the trees, (3) the outfit and (4) the rate of pay for 
labor. 

Many carefully kept records are now available for comparison, 
but the following cases will suflice here : 

Case I. — Cost of spraying 500 20-year-old apple trees in Okanagan 
Valley, B. C, averaged 8 cents per tree. 

Case 2. — In Dr. Hedrick's experimental lo-acre orchard, Geneva, 
N. Y., about 30 years old, the cost of spraying averaged per year for 
10 years 41.8 cents per tree for 2-7^ sprayings. 

Case 3. — Five-year average cost of spraying eight orchards in Indiana, 
the trees being from 18 to 23 years of age, a first dormant spray with 
lime-sulphur, and four other summer sprays mostly with lime-sulphur 
and arsenate of lead; 41 cents per tree, $16.89 P^^ ^cre, and 17.98 
gal. per tree (Bull. 194, Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp. Stn., 1916). 

Case 4. — Cost of spraying in New Hampshire (labor and material, 
arsenate of lead and Bordeaux) iij^ cents per tree per application. 

Case 5. — In 1916 the average cost of spraying eleven widely 
separated orchards in Massachusetts was 52 cents per tree, and the 



382 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



average profit was $4.50. These results are interesting as they were 
obtained from farmers under ordinary farm conditions. 



DUST SPRAYING 



During the last 6 or 7 years there has been a revival of dust 
spraying, especially in New York State. Professors Reddick and 




Fig. 249.- — A liusl sprayer in uperaUun in an orchard. {Courlesy oj Ike Niagara 

Sprayer Co.) 

Crosby of Cornell University carried out a series of experiments from 
1911 to 1917 with dust sprays against insects and fungous diseases of 
the orchard. Different mixtures were used: 

1. Sulphur, 80 per cent.; arsenate of lead, 20 per cent. 

2. Sulphur, 40 per cent. ; arsenate of lead, 10 per cent. ; finely ground 
gypsum, 50 per cent. 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 383 

3. Sulphur, 40 per cent.; arsenate of lead, lo percent.; hydrated 
lime, 50 per cent. 

In every case the sulphur was finely ground so that it could pass 
through a 200-mesh screen. The results were very staisfactory, 
comparing very favorably with those obtained from the liquid spray. 
The cost of the materials in dust spraying, however, was high, but 
the cost of labor was lower than in liquid spraying. The only objec- 
tion, at present, to the complete substitution of the dust method for 
spraying is that there is no known dust preparation that will kill scale 
insects, or that is effective against aphis, pear psylla or red bugs. 

The dust method makes it possible to protect the orchard at 
critical times, as a large orchard can be treated in about one-fifth of 
the time required by liquid spraying (Fig. 249). 

POISONS FOR BITING INSECTS 

(Consult Farmers' Bull. 908, U. S. Dep. Ag.) 

The most important poisons used for the destruction of biting insects 
are (a) Paris green; (b) arsenite of lime; (c) arsenate of lead; {d) arsen- 
ate of lime; (e) hellebore; (/) sodium fluoride. When leaves or other 
portions of plants, dusted or sprayed with suitable quantities of these 
substances, are eaten by insects the latter are poisoned. As a rule, 
better results are secured by spraying the plants than by dusting 
them; sometimes, however, it is impracticable to spray and resort 
must be had to dusting. 

(a) Paris Green.^- — Pure Paris green, 3Cu(As02)2-Cu(C2H302)2, 
composed of 58.65 per cent, arsenious oxide, 31.29 per cent, copper 
oxide, and 10.06 per cent, acetic acid, is soluble in ammonia but only 
slightly soluble in water. In commercial forms there is usually a 
small amount of free arsenious acid, so that it is necessary to add lime 
to prevent injury from the burning of the fohage. The amount of 
lime used should be at least equal to that of the Paris green, but when 
it is added to Bordeaux mixture the excess of lime renders the addition 
of lime unnecessary. One pound of Paris green is suflScient for an acre 
of potatoes. Paris green particles are heavy and sink readily in 

1 Paris Green first came into use as an insecticide about 1870 in the early effort 
to control the Colorado potato beetle, and lead arsenate was first used in 
Massachusetts about 1892 as a safe chemical against the gypsy and brown tail 
caterpillars. 



384 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

water. The finer the particles the longer they remain in suspension, 
consequently it should first of all be made into a thin paste in a small 
amount of water, and after it is in the barrel it should be kept in 
suspension by a mixer. // cannot he used with lime-sulphur solution. 

The usual formula employed is: Paris green, i lb.; best stone lime, 
I to 4 lb.; water, 160 gal. imperial or 200 gal. U. S. measure. The 
Paris green is made into a paste with water and stirred into the lime- 
and-water mixture. When used as a dry application for the potato 
beetle, i lb. of Paris green is thoroughly mixed with 20 lb. cheap 
flour, air-slaked lime or finely sifted land plaster. 

{h) Ar senile of Lime. — White arsenic (AS2O3), combined with 
washing soda or sal soda (Na2C03) and quick hme (CaO), is frequently 
used on account of its cheapness. The combination is made as follows: 

Dissolve I lb. white arsenic and i lb. sal soda in i gal. of water 
by boiling in an iron vessel for 20 minutes. Add this while hot to 
slake the hme; then add 2 gal. of water. Use 2 qt. of this to 40 gal. 
of water. AS2O3 + NasCOa + Ca(OH)2 = Ca(As02)2 + CO2 + 
2NaOH; or rather AS2O3 + NasCOa = 2NaAs02 + CO2; 2NaAs02 + 
Ca(0H)2 = Ca(As02)2 + 2NaOH. 

{c) Arsenate of Lead. — This insecticide is preferred by many fruit 
growers to Paris green since it adheres better to foliage, is less likely 
to do injury, and no lime is required in standard preparations. 

The commercial form consists of a mixture of the neutral triplumbic 
arsenate [Pb3(As04)2] and the acid plumbic hydrogen arsenate (PbH- 
ASO4). The neutral product may be prepared by dissolving acetate 
of lead (11 oz.) and arsenate of soda (4 oz.) in 120 gal. water. The 
reaction is as follows: 

3Pb(C2H302)2 + 2Na3As04 = Pb3(AsOi)2 + 6NaC2H302. 

When lead nitrate is used instead of lead acetate more of the acid 
arsenate is formed. 

For fruit trees 2 lb. of arsenate of lead (paste) to the barrel (40 
gal.) of water is the usual strength. For the Potato Beetle 4 lb. 
(paste) or 2 lb. (powder) to the barrel should be used. Acid brands 
are apt to burn the leaves. 

Commercial arsenate of lead is put up- in the paste, the usual form, 
and the powder form of which but half the amount is required. The 
former contains about 15 per cent. AS2O5; the latter has about ZZ P^r 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 385 

cent. AS2O5, but does not remain well in suspension. The powder 
form is used in dust spraying. 

Sometimes a gallon of molasses is added to 40 gal. of the solution 
with good effect against fruit-flies, rose-chafers and grape root-worm 
beetles. Arsenate of lead can be used safely with the lime-sulphur 
mixture for summer sprays. 

{d) Arsenate of Lime. — 'Recently arsenate of lime or calcium 
arsenate has given good results against certain chewing insects. It 
may be prepared according to the following formula: 

Stone lime (90 per cent. CaO), 55 lb.; sodium arsenate (dry pow- 
dered), 65 per cent. AS2O5, 100 lb.; water, 26 gal. 

2Na3AsOi + 3Ca(OH)2 = Ca3(As04)2 + 6NaOH. 

The lime is slaked in a small amount of water; while slaking is taking 
place the sodium arsenate, dissolved in hot water, is poured in; sufficient 
water is added to prevent burning. The calcium arsenate formed in 
this way contains about 18 per cent. AS2O5. 

The killing action is about equal to that of lead arsenate, perhaps 
a Httle slower, when used at the rate of 2 lb. to each 50 gal. of water. 
It can be used with lime-sulphur as a combined insecticide and fungi- 
cide. It can be prepared more cheaply than lead arsenate.^ 

Arsenate of lime, when used alone as a spray, is liable to burn 
the leaves, but when used in combination sprays with Bordeaux 
mixture, lime sulphur, and sodium sulphide ("Soluble sulphur," 
" Sulphocide ") it is as safe as any other arsenical and probably 
the cheapest of all insecticides. 

{e) Hellebore. — This substance is sometimes used as a substitute 
for arsenicals on fruit which is nearly ripe. It may be applied dry or 
liquid; dry with five parts of flour or air-slaked lime, Hquid at the 
rate of i oz. of hellebore to 2 gal. of water. 

Although an internal poison to insects it is harmless to man in the 
quantities named. It is too expensive for use on large areas. 

(/) Sodium Fluoride. — Acts both as a poison and a contact substance. 
Applied as a fine powder or dust pure or mixed with flour or lime. 
Effective against ants, cockroaches, etc. 

^Some chemists maintain that arsenate of lead, when added to Bordeaux, is 
converted into arsenate of lime; hence it is more economical to add arsenate of 
lime in the first place. 

25 



386 economic entomology 

2. The Application of Contact Substances Against Sucking 

Insects 

(Consult Farmers' Bull. 908, U. S. Dep. Ag.) 

The main substances used as Contact Insecticides against sucking 
insects are: (a) Lime-sulphur wash; (b) whale-oil soap; (c) kerosene 
emulsion; (d) tobacco decoction; (e) miscible oils; (f) pyrethrum; (g) 
lime dust; (h) commercial sodium fluoride; (i) carbolic acid emulsion, 
(7) other substances. 

(a) Lime-sulphur Wash. — This wash first came into use in the control 
of the San Jose scale on dormant wood where its beneficial effects 
were evident also against other insects and against certain fungous 
diseases. It cannot be used on potato leaves. 

It is prepared in two forms — ^home-made Hme-sulphur wash and 
commercial Hme-sulphur wash, diluted for use on dormant wood 
and on summer foliage as required. 

I. Home-made Preparation (Boiled). — ^Lime (best), 20 lb.; sulphur 
(flowers), 15 lb.; water, 40 gal. (imperial).^ 

II. Concentrated Formula (Stock Wash). — Lime, 50 lb.; sulphur 
100 lb.; water, 40 gal. (imperial) or 50 gal. U. S. measure. 

Heat water (20 gal.) to near boiling and add the fresh lime. While 
slaking is in progress add with frequent stirrings the sulphur which 
has been made into a paste. Add water to make up to 40 gal. and 
boil for an hour replacing the water lost by boihng. Strain through 
a 20-mesh screen, and place in storage barrels. By means of a lime- 
sulphur hydrometer the amount of dilution can be determined for 
each spraying. "For use before buds burst" dilute to sp. gr. 1.03; 
''before blossoms burst" 1.009; and ''just after blossoms fall," 1.008. 
To get the amount of dilution divide the reading after the decimal 
point of the stock solution by the reading after the decimal point 
of the solution desired. For example, if the hydrometer reading of 
the stock solution is 1.3 and that of solution to use "before buds 
burst" is 1.03, the amount of dilution is 30 divided by 3 = 10. That 
is I gal. of stock solution makes 10 gal. of spray (Fig. 250). 

Some recent experiments go to show that the lime-sulphur applica- 

^The capacity of a barrel is expressed in all cases in imperial gallons (40); 
sometimes the equivalent in U. S. measure (50) is also given. 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 



387 



tion 10 days or 2 weeks after the 
blossoms fall should be diluted to a 
sp. gr. of 1.005 o^ account of the 
tenderness of the apple pedicels. 

The amount of spray liquid 
varies with the size of the tree. A 
thrifty 9- or lo-year-old tree on 
the average requires i3^^ gal. for the 
dormant spray and i gal. for each of 
the later sprays. A 30-year-old tree 
requires 5 gal. for the dormant spray 
and 4 gal. for each of the later 
sprays. 

In boiling Hme and sulphur to- 
gether according to the formulae 
given above, two sulphides of cal- 
cium (CaS4 and CaSs) and the thio- 
sulphate of calcium (CaS203) are 
formed. These are soluble in water. 
If too much lime is used a sediment 
will form. Only the best stone lime 
should be employed, and the boiling 
should not be too prolonged as in- 
soluble compounds are formed. 

3Ca(OH)2+ iiS = CaS4 + 

CaSs +CaS203 + 3H2O. 

When the hydrometer has the 
Baume graduation marks ranging 
from o to 36° the mixture for^^the 
San Jose scale (dormant stage) 
should test between 4.5° and 5° 
Baume^ and for the summer spray- 
ing about 1° Baume (Fig. 250). 

The following table of dilutions 
of lime-sulphur has been calculated 
for both hydrometer graduations : 



C oncentrate d 




Pig. 250. — Diagram of hydrometer 
in use. i, For concentrated solutions 
and graduated from 1.21 to 1.32 
specific gravity, with surface of liquid 
indicated at a-b; 2, for diluted solu- 
tion and graduated from i.oo to i.io 
specific gravity, with surface of liquid 
indicated at c-d. (After Corby.) 



388 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Specific 


Degrees 
Baum6 


To make a dormant spray 
testing 5° Baume or 1.03 
sp. gr. For i gal. of lime-sul- 
phur use gal. water 


For I gal. of lime-sulphur use following 
gallons of water, to make a summer 
spray testing 


gravity 


1 .009 


1 .008 


1 .007 


1.006 


1. 005 








sp. gr. 


sp. gr. 


sp. gr. 


sp. gr. 


sp. gr. 


I. 318 


35 


9K 


34 


39 


44 


52 


62 


1.306 


34 


9 


33 


37 


43 


50 


60 


1-295 


33 


m 


32 


36 


41 


48 


58 


1.283 


32 


8H 


30 


343^ 


39 


46 


55H 


1 .272 


31 


8 


29 


33 


38 


44 


53K 


1 . 261 


30 


7M 


28 


31M 


36 


423^ 


51 


1.250 


29 


7H 


27 


30 


35 


403^ 


49 


1.239 


28 


7 


26 


29 


33 


39 


47 


1 .229 


27 


6K 


24 


27K 


32 


37 


45 


I. 218 


26 


634 


23 


26 


30 


35 


43 


1.208 


25 


6 


22 


25 


29 


33 K 


40 


1. 198 


24 


53^ 


21 


24 


27 


32 


39 


1. 188 


23 


sK 


20 


223^ 


26 


30 


37 


1. 179 


22 


5 


19 


21 


25 


29 


35 


1 . 169 


21 


4H 


18 


20 


23 


27 


33 


1 . 160 


20 


4M 


17 


19 


22 


26 


31 


1. 151 


19 


4 


16 


18 


21 


24 


29 


1. 142 


18 


3^ 


15 


17 


19 


223^ 


27 


I 133 


17 


3^ 


14 


153^ 


18 


21 


26 


1 . 124 


16 


3 


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143^ 


17 


20 


24 


1. 115 


15 


2% 


12 


13 


IS 


18 22 



III. Commercial Wash. — Commercial washes are now sold which 
are quite reliable. Directions are given as to dilution. Usually they 
test about 1.290 sp. gr. or 33° Baume. 

Lime-sulphur when used at summer strength acts also as a stomach 
poison, but more slowly than arsenate of lead. Flour-paste as a 
''sticker" is often added, especially in summer sprays (8 lb. flour 
boiled into a thin paste in 8 gal. of water, mixed with 160 gal. 
of lime-sulphur). 

It is to be noted that Lead Arsenate, not Paris green, is to be used 
with the Lime-sulphur Wash. When Paris green, a copper-aceto 
compound, is added to lime-sulphur the copper is attacked and free 
soluble arsenic is liberated in quantity sufficient to kill foliage. 

IV. Lime-sulphur (Self-boiled). — Prepared by slaking 8 lb. best 
stone lime in a small quantity of cold water; while slaking 8 lb. of 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 389 

finely powdered sulphur are added with constant stirring, also sufficient 
water to prevent burning. Then add water to make 40 gal. This 
liquid is a mixture of lime and sulphur, for little combination takes 
place, and is a good fungicide against brown rot of stone fruits. It is 
not used to any great extent by fruit growers. 

Sulphur and Lime. — Flowers of sulphur and hydrated lime in equal 
parts, when blown upon citrous trees, keep in control red spiders and 
mites. 

Recent experiments in Nova Scotia show that arsenate of lime is 
preferable to arsenate of lead as a poison with Hme-sulphur solutions. 
When standard arsenate of lead is added to lime-sulphur a double 
decomposition occurs with the formation of lead sulphide and a crude 
arsenate of lime, 5 per cent, of which is soluble. 

When the soluble sodium sulphides, such as "soluble sulphur," 
'"sulfocide," "spra sulphide," etc., are used in combination with arsen- 
icals of copper, lead and zinc soluble arsenical salts of sodium are formed 
which are unsafe as apple sprays. However, when used with arsenate 
of lime ar^d water-slaked lime (3 lb. soluble sulphur, ij-^ lb. arsenate 
of lime and 5 to 10 lb. water-slaked hme) no injury results to apple 
foliage. 

In Nova Scotia it has been found that when the common poisons 
are added to Bordeaux mixture their killing power is usually decreased 
by about 50 per cent. Sodium arsenate, however, retains its power 
after its addition to Bordeaux if prepared as follows: 

Dissolve I lb. sodium arsenate in water and with this solution slake 
5 lb. of fresh stone Hme and make up to 20 gal. Dissolve 4 lb. blue- 
stone in another 20 gal. of water and pour the two together. 

Sodium sulphide, on the other hand, increases the kiUing value of 
poisons. 

With the advent of high power sprayers complaints have come in 
regarding injury to and drop of the leaves and fruit of trees sprayed 
with the summer strength of lime-sulphur, especially with the later 
sprayings. This result is due to the destructive action of the lime- 
sulphur on the contents of the leaf-cells. Experiments showed that 
when the upper surface of the leaves only was sprayed no drop of 
leaf or fruit ensued, but when the spray was applied to the under surface 
much drop followed. This result does not follow the appHcation of 
sodium sulphide or Bordeaux. 



390 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

The "spray gun" may be safely used, however, at a high pressure 
by the long distance method of spraying in which only the upper side 
of the leaves becomes wet. 

Bordeaux frequently causes ''russetting" of the fruit, and for this 
reason fruit growers began the use of the summer strength of lime- 
sulphur. The latter, however, causes a drop of the fruit, and the 
soluble sulphur-slaked lime-arsenate of lime combination is recom- 
mended as being free from injurious effects. 

A modification of the 4:40:40 Bordeaux formula is now recom- 
mended in Nova Scotia for the later sprayings in apple orchards: 
2 lb. bluestone, finely pulverized; 10 lb. lime; 40 gal. water. 

Many evidences point to the conclusion that in mixtures of Bor- 
deaux and arsenious compounds the lack of injury to foliage is due to 
the formation of a copper-arsenide compound rather than to the sup- 
posed neutralizing action of the lime. 

Soluble Sulphur. — A patent preparation containing about 60 per cent, 
soluble sulphur and 40 per cent, inert matter. It is used as a substitute 
for hme and sulphur. Its value has not yet been definitely determined 
on account of conflicting reports by growers. It has the merit of 
being easily handled. 

{b) Whale-oil Soap. — Potash whale-oil soap of a good grade, 
when dissolved in warm water at the rate of 2 lb. to a gallon 
of water, makes an excellent spray for early spring treatment of or- 
chards — just before the buds swell. It is also valuable as a summer 
treatment against aphids and pear psylla, but it should be diluted: 
I lb. of soap dissolved in 4-6 gal. of warm water. The soap has an 
invigorating effect on the tree, but the cost prohibits its use in orchards 
on a large scale. 

Against scale insects on palms, rubber plants, cycads, and oleanders 
in conservatories whale-oil soap is used at the rate of i lb. to each 
gallon of water; on ferns however, fir-tree oil or lemon oil (1-15 or 
20 water) is used as these plants are readily injured by whale-oil soap. 

Soap Solution. — This solution is made by dissolving i lb. of 
hard soap in 5 gal. of water. It is effective in controlling plant- 
lice and other sucking insects on house and garden plants. 

The addition of soap solution, 3-5 lb. in 80 gal. of tobacco ex- 
tract solution, is recommended for plant-lice. 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 39 1 

Sulphur-soap Mixture (for Red Spider). — Prepared by dissolving 
I lb. laundry soap in 8 gal. water and adding 3^^ lb. flowers of sulphur. 
The under side of the leaves should be sprayed. 

{c) Kerosene Emulsion. — A soap emulsion of kerosene has for 
many years been used against aphids and other sucking insects. It 
is prepared by dissolving J^ lb. of soap in i gal. of warm water, and 
adding 2 gal. of kerosene to the hot soap solution. The whole is 
then agitated until a creamy emulsion is formed. This stock solution 
when properly made keeps indefinitely. When required for use the 
stock solution is diluted with 10 times its volume of water. 

{d) Tobacco Decoction. — A strong decoction of tobacco stems or 
leaves is an excellent remedy against aphids, either in the field or 
in the greenhouse. The decoction is an extract and is made by 
steeping refuse tobacco in warm water for several hours until a deep 
brown liquid is obtained. Two pounds of tobacco are treated in 2 gal. of 
water and afterward made up to 5 gal. It is a safe remedy. 

Several tobacco preparations are now on the market, the most 
valuable for orchard spraying being "Black Leaf 40." This concen- 
trated extract contains 40 per cent, nicotine sulphate and is usually 
diluted with water, i part to 1000, when used against plant-lice and 
other sucking insects. It can be safely used with lime-sulphur, ar- 
senate of lead or soap solutions. 

"Nico-fume" contains 40 per cent, nicotine sulphate and is much 
used in greenhouses by vaporizing it at the rate of 3^^ oz. to 2000 cu. ft. 

Tobacco papers are also used in greenhouses. Dense fumes are 
given off when they are ignited. 

(e) Miscible Oils. — Certain proprietary mixtures containing mineral 
oils in combination with a small quantity of vegetable oil and some 
alkali to make them miscible with water are valuable in the control 
of scale insects. Reliable market preparations are more satisfactory 
than those made at home and less likely to be injurious to the trees. 
There is always a certain amount of risk in using these oils, but the 
danger is lessened if they are used on dormant trees in fine weather. 
The more reliable brands are "Scalecide," '^ Target Brand," " Orchard 
Brand" and "Kil-0-Scale." 

(/■) Pyrethrum. — Pyrethrum, known also as Buhach, Persian and 
Dalmatian insect powders, and by other trade narnes, is used fre- 



392 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

quently on aphids, slugs, and some household pests, where operations 
are confined to a small area. 

It may be used either as a spray or in the dry form. As a spray 
it should first of all be made into a paste in a small quantity of water 
and afterward diluted to the proper strength, viz. : i oz. to 3 gal. 
of water. When used dry, i part of powder is thoroughly mixed 
with 4 parts of flour, and kept in a tight can for a day. The mixture 
is dusted on either by a bellows or through a coarse bag, on account 
of the fact that the essential ingredient is a volatile oil. 

Pyre thrum loses its strength on exposure to the air; the can must, 
therefore, be kept tightly closed. 

(g) Lime. — Air-slaked lime is effective against slugs and other 
soft-bodied larvae. It should be applied as a very fine dust. 

Some investigators report beneficial effects from the application 
of thick lime-wash about onion plants as soon as they are up as a 
protection against the onion maggot. 

Professor Parrott of the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station 
finds that lime with nicotine is much more effective against aphis, 
leaf-hopper and pear psylla than nicotine alone, or soap, or oil emulsion. 

Qi) Commercial Sodium Fluoride. — This substance, both a poison 
and a contact insecticide, is effective against cockroaches, chicken 
lice and other insects when applied, pure or mixed with flour or plaster, 
as a fine dust by means of a dust blower. 

(i) Carbolic Acid Emulsion. — For the control of root-feeding 
larvae such as onion maggots and radish maggots, an emulsion of 
carbolic acid has given good results. It is prepared by dissolving 
I lb. of hard soap in i gal. of hot water and adding i pt. of crude 
carbolic acid. The mixture is agitated until a thick, emulsion is 
produced. This is the stock solution, and is diluted with 20-30 
parts of water for use. A tablespoonful is poured about the base of 
the plant to prevent egg-laying, and at the same time to kill the newly 
hatched larvae. 

(/') Scale insects on ferns are treated effectively by the use of i 
part fir-tree or lemon oil to 15 or 20 parts of water. 

(k) Cattle Dips. — The most widely used methods of controlling 
cattle-scab diseases are: 

I. Dipping the animals in lime-sulphur or nicotine solutions 
twice, 10 to 14 days apart. Dipping plants are arranged so 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 393 

that the cattle enter one end of a vat filled with warm dip through 
which they swim, and leave the vat at the opposite end. The lime- 
sulphur dip is made by mixing 12 lb. unslaked lime and 24 lb. 
flowers of sulphur in 100 gal. of water. Nicotine dips should con- 
tain about ^ioo ^^ I P^i" cent, of nicotine, and should be used 
warm, not above ioo°F. 

2. Spraying the animals. This method is neither so economical 
nor so effective as dipping, but is recommended where but a few 
animals are to be treated. 

Cattle lice can be controlled by the following means: 

1. Hand applications with a brush or cloth at intervals of about 
3 weeks, of (a) cottonseed oil and kerosene (equal parts); (b) kero- 
sene and lard (3-^ pt. to i lb.); (c) crude petroleum; (d) any of the 
dip solutions. 

2. Spraying with any of the dip solutions. 

3. Dipping in (a), an arsenical solution, prepared as follows: 

4 lb. caustic soda (85 per cent. pure). 

8 lb. white arsenic (99 per cent, pure) in fine powder. 

8 lb. sal soda crystals. 

I gal. pine tar. 

500 gal. water (temp. 65°-9o°F.). 

(b) Coal-tar creosote, sold under many trade names and to 

be used according to instructions. 

(c) Nicotine solution, sold under many trade names and to 

be used according to instructions. 

(Consult Farmers' Bull. 909 and 1017, U. S. Dep. Agric.) 

3. The Use of Poisonous Gases 

The more important poisonous gases used to control insects are: 
(a) carbon bisulphide; (b) hydrocyanic acid gas; (c) sulphur dioxide; 
(d) tobacco; (e^) formalin; (/") carbon tetrachloride. 

(a) Carbon Bisulphide. — This is an ill-smelling liquid which is 
readily volatile. The gas is much heavier than air, and if placed in 
shallow pans above or on top of grain or other vegetable foods the 
fumes sink, and being poisonous will kill the insects. It is specially 
valuable for the fumigation of peas infested with weevils, or grain 



394 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

infested with weevils and other insects. It is also used for the de- 
struction of household pests such as clothes moths, etc. 

Two pounds of the liquid is sufficient for loo bu. of peas or 
grain, or looo cu. ft. of space. It is inflammable. 

(b) Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. — This gas is liberated when diluted 
sulphuric acid is added to potassium or sodium cyanide. It is a deadly 
poisonous gas, and great care should be taken in its use as an insecticide. 

It came into use in California for the fumigation of citrus and olive 
trees. Later it was introduced into eastern nurseries for the treatment 
of San Jose scale on dormant nursery stock, and for the control of 
flour mill pests, and, in some cases, greenhouse and household pests. 

The formula for nursery stock and household fumigation is: Cya- 
nide of potash or soda, i oz.; sulphuric acid (sp. gr., 1.83), i fl. oz.; 
water, 3 fl. oz. per 100 cu. ft. space. For greenhouse fumigation at 
night the formula is: Cyanide of potash or soda, J^ oz.; sulphuric acid, 
I fl. oz.; water, 3 fl. oz. per 1000 cu. ft. space. 

This gas is lighter than air and diffuses very rapidly. 

(c) Sulphur Fumes. — The destructive action of sulphur is largely 
due to the readiness with which it oxidizes to sulphur dioxide, a gas 
fatal to many forms of insect life. Mites are controlled in green- 
houses by the dusting of fine sulphur on the surfaces of the leaves. 

When sulphur is burned on a hot plate over a low flame sulphur 
dioxide is rapidly formed, recognized by its suffocating odor. This 
is, perhaps, the simplest method of dealing with ordinary household 
pests such as bed bugs, fleas, and other forms. 

Combined with a soap, sulphur is used as a wash for mange which 
is caused by a mite. 

(d) Tobacco. — Tobacco fumes are destructive to aphids on green- 
house and household plants. They are liberated by the application 
of heat to certain Nicotine Extracts, Nicotine Paper, or finely divided 
tobacco powders. These "fumigating" powders and extracts may 
now be had in the market and are convenient methods of dealing 
with house plants. 

(e) Formalin. — As a rule, formalin (40 per cent, formaldehyde) is 
not effective as an insecticide, although an excellent germicide. As a 
fly-poison, however, it is strongly recommended when used as follows: 
Mix I tablespoonful formalin with J^ cup sweet milk or J^ cup water, 
and expose in a shallow plate with a slice of bread in it. 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 395 

(/) Carbon Tetrachloride. — This liquid although not so active as 
carbon bisulphide is not explosive. It may be used for fumigating 
bins infested with insects, when applied at the rate of 2 lb. for 
every 100 cu. ft. of space or 100 bu. of grain. 

4. The Application of Repellent Substances 

Several substances are known to act as '^repellents" to insects 
and may sometimes be used to advantage in preventing insect attack 
Among such substances are: {a) Bordeaux mixture; {h) tobacco dust 
{c) carbolic acid emulsion; {d) kerosene; {e) turpentine; {f), coal tar 
(g) naphthaline; Qi) zenoleum and creolin compounds; {i) tanglefoot 
(7) carbolineum emulsion; {k) soap-carbolic-Paris green wash. 

{a) Bordeaux Mixture. — This fungicidal mixture keeps away flea- 
beetles from potato leaves and striped cucumber beetles from pumpkins 
and squashes when applied as a fine spray. It is prepared as follows : 
Copper sulphate (blues tone), 4 lb.; quickhme, 4 lb.; water, 40 gal. 

CUSO4, 5H2O + Ca(0H)2 = Cu(0H)2 + CaS04 + 5H2O. 

2[Cu(OH)2, CuSOJ + CO2 = 2CUSO4 + Cu(0H)2 + CuCOs + H2O. 
In mixing solutions of these two substances care must be taken that 
they come together in a large quantity of water, and that enough 
lime is present to act on all the bluestone. 

{h) Tobacco Dust. — In the case of certain garden crops fine sprin- 
kling of the ground when moist with refuse tobacco dust not only 
fertilizes the soil but also repels the striped cucumber beetle and the 
melon aphis. 

{c) Carbolic Acid Emulsion. — Carbolic acid is a repellent, as well as 
an irritant and stomach poison, and in various forms is used for the 
control of insects. Reference has already been made to its use as a 
contact insecticide. As a repellent it is added to a solution of wash- 
ing soda or lye as a protective wash against borers in orchards and 
shade trees; as an emulsion with soap against root-maggots of cab- 
bage and onion; and often also used in poultry house against biting 
lice and mites. 

{d) Kerosene, (e) Turpentine and (/") Coal tar are sometimes mixed 
with saw-dust, sand, or other materials; when placed around plants or 
seeds they are said to have a repellent action toward insects. 



396 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

(g) Naphthaline.— This substance is the basis of camphor balls, 
and is commonly used as a preservative of household goods and wearing 
apparel against the attacks of clothes moths and other insects. 

(h) Zenoleum and Creolin Compounds. — Some excellent com- 
pounds of creolin and related substances are prepared as repellents 
against flies that bother cattle, and against biting lice and mites of 
poultry. The cow horn-fly may be controlled by the use of such 
substances. 

{i) Tanglefoot. — A sticky substance; is used as fly-paper and as 
sticky bands for trees to prevent caterpillars such as those of Gypsy 
moth and Tussock moth from ascending. 

ij) Carholineum Emulsion. — Used against bark beetles, shot-hole 
borers and poplar borers. Four pounds naphtha soap are dissolved in 
4 gal. of hot water, the carbolineum added, and the whole agitated to 
form an emulsion. For use 3 gal. of hot water are added and emulsion 
is sprayed on the trees while warm. 

{k) Wash for Tree Trunks. — To protect trees against borers the 
following wash is of value: Dissolve i lb. of hard soap or 2 qt. of soft 
soap in a pail of water, then add J2 pt. of crude carbolic acid, and 2 oz. 
of Paris green; thicken with lime. 

5. The Use of Protectors 

Various forms of protectors are used to ward off insect attacks. 
The application is confined mainly to the street, orchard and garden. 
The following methods are those most commonly in use: (a) metal or 
sticky bands; {b) cheese-cloth or muslin screens; {c) wire-netting; {d) 
tarred felt paper. 

(a) Metal or Sticky Bands. — To protect trees from the attacks of 
climbing caterpillars such as the tussock and canker worms, special 
bands are placed about the trunk a few feet above the ground. The 
caterpillars are prevented from passing up, and they often collect 
in large numbers under the flaps or rim of the hand where they are 
readily destroyed. The gypsy, the tent-caterpillars, climbing 
cutworms and walnut caterpillars are also kept in check by this method. 

{b) Cheese-cloth or Muslin Screens. — Such devices are often effect- 
ive against cucumber beetles, flea-beetles and the radish root-maggot. 
As these insects are most injurious while the plants are just coming 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 



397 



above the ground, the frames holding the screens should be placed in 
position soon after the plants are set out or the seeds planted. They 
can be readily removed for a short time whenever weeding, cultivation 
and watering are necessary. 

(c) Wire-netting. — Wire-netting is often placed about trees to 
protect them from the Peach-borer, and the Round-headed apple tree 
Borer. 




Fig. 251. — Tool and device for cutting disks. (After Britton.) 

(d) Single-ply Tar Felt Paper Disks. — Used to protect cabbage and 
cauHflower plants against the cabbage-root maggot (Figs. 251-253). 



6. The Use of Traps, Trap Crops, Etc. 

The following forms of traps are sometimes used to advantage: 
(a) boards or chips; {b) special crops; {c) poison baits. 

(a) Boards or Chips. — Squash bugs, cutworms and other insects 
may be readily trapped in large numbers by placing small bits of 
board or chips or bunches of grass among the rows of plants where 
these insects hide. 



398 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



(b) Special Crops. — Such crops have been found advantageous in 
the control of Hessian fly, army worms, squash bugs, cucumber beetles, 
and asparagus beetles. In the case of the Hessian fly narrow strips 
are planted early so that the flies may deposit their eggs on the wheat 
before the regular planting of the field. These trap strips are then 
destroyed. With the army worm, a similar narrow strip on the 
border of the field may be poisoned with an arsenical spray. With 
cucumber beetles and asparagus beetles, a few 
plants may be set apart to trap the early beetles 
nd then destroyed. 

(c) Poison Baits. — Such are very effective against 
grasshoppers, cutworms and other insects. The 
Criddle Mixture, made by mixing thoroughly i lb. 
of Paris green or white arsenic, i lb. of salt (dis- 
solved in water), and 15 gal., by measure, of fresh 
horse droppings, with sufficient water to make the 












Fig. 252. — Wood form for cutting hexagonal disks 
for the cabbage-root maggot. (After Britton.) 



Fig. 253. — Tool 
for cutting cards of 
tarred building paper. 
{After Slingerland.) 



whole mass moist but not soggy, is used in the West against grass- 
hoppers. When the mixture is scattered about grass lands and the 
edges of grain fields in hot, sunny weather the grasshoppers are readily 
poisoned. 

Another bait, first used in Kansas against grasshoppers, is now 
usually employed against cutworms, army worms and grasshoppers. 
The formula is: i lb. Paris green, 20 lb. wheat bran, 2 qt. of cheap 
molasses, the juice and pulp of 3 oranges or lemons, and 2 to 2)^ gal. 
water. The bait, sown broadcast in early morning, will show results 
in a few days. 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 399 

Professor Sanders of Pennsylvania recommends the following 
poison bait spray against the adults of the onion maggot: 5 grams of 
sodium arsenite dissolved in a gallon of boiling water into which is 
thoroughly mixed a pint of molasses. This bait is applied as a coarse 
spray of large drops once a week across the onion field throughout the 
summer. 

For cockroaches and ants in kitchens and pantries powdered borax 
mixed with sweetened chocolate, scattered in the evening about the 
haunts of the insects, and powdered sodium fluoride, pure or mixed 
with flour or plaster, applied by means of a dust blower are effective. 

Sponges filled with sugared water attract ants that infest houses, 
and large numbers can be readily destroyed. 

7. Ditches, Furrows and Trenches 

When fields are threatened with the army worm or grasshoppers, 
a ditch or deep furrow made in front of the advancing army has had 
excellent results. The insects falling into the ditch may be destroyed 
in large numbers. 

8. The Use of Hopperdozers, Etc. 

In the grasshopper-infested regions of the West hopperdozers or 
hopper-catchers are used to great advantage. Various devices are in 
use, but they all agree in principle. They are essentially machines 
for gathering up the grasshoppers as they are drawn across an in- 
fested field. Attached to each machine is a contrivance for destroying 
the insects when collected by means of coal-oil, or tanglefoot, or pitch 
tar. 

Best results are secured by using the dozers when the hoppers 
are small. If infested fields are gone over frequently the damage 
will be reduced to a minimum. 

9. Collecting, Digging-out, Jarring, Etc. 

Under this head are collected a number of mechanical methods 
which the careful farmer and fruit grower employ to good advantage. 
Sometimes much damage can be averted by the timely picking of the 



400 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

eggs, larvae, or adults of insects such as the tobacco and tomato worms 
(Sphingidce), corn ear worm, potato beetle, celery caterpillar, white 
grubs, cabbage butterflies, asparagus beetles, etc. 

Again, it is often wise to cut out, burn, or otherwise destroy certain 
insects whenever they appear. For example, web-worms, tent-cater- 
pillars, stalk-borers, etc., may be effectively dealt with at certain stages 
in this way. 

Sometimes, too, under certain conditions, insects can be controlled 
by jarring and beating the infested plants. When poisons are objec- 
tionable, this method of dealing with potato beetles, currant worms, 
plum curculio, etc., is recommended. 

lo. High and Low Temperatures 

In flour or meal mills it has been practicable to raise the temperature 
to 120° or 125° for 6 to 8 hours, when it is found that all the insects — 
eggs, larvae and adults — are killed. On the other hand insects are not 
able to develop at cold-storage temperatures, hence products kept in 
cold storage are kept free from injury. 

THE ACTION OF INSECTICIDES 

(Consult Tech. Bulls. 11 and 21, Mich. Agric. Coll.) 

Until recently the mode of action of insecticides was not well under- 
stood. It was commonly stated that contact substances kill insects 
by stopping the breathing pores or plugging the tracheae, producing 
death by suffocation. Recent investigations, however, go to show that 
insects are not readily suffocated. The death-producing action of 
chemicals is mainly due to their absorption into their tissues. The 
volatile portions of kerosene, carbon bisulphide, gasoline, creolin, pyr- 
ethrum, etc., are effective long before the liquids have time to pene- 
trate the chitin or the spiracles into the tissues. 

With the penetration of the volatile substances the nervous system 
is seriously affected, and results resembling narcosis are produced, 
where there is a disturbance of the respiratory activity. Insect 
tissues soon become saturated when exposed to the vapors of the 
substances mentioned, and death ensues through the inability of the 
tissues to absorb oxygen in the presence of these vapors. 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 401 

In the case of lime-sulphur, its effectiveness is due to its reducing 
power, and with scale insects to its softening action on the wax about 
the margin of the scales and to its effect on the waxen covering making 
it less permeable to oxygen. 

Alkaline washes, corrosive subhmate solution and other Kquids, 
which are able to dissolve or precipitate certain constituents of the 
tissues, pass through the chitin slowly. 

Moreover, gasoline, carbon bisulphide, hydrocyanic acid gas, sodium 
fluoride, etc. act strongly on the oxidases and other enzymes in the 
tissues of insects causing serious disturbances. 

Fat or fat-like membranes absorb the vapors of gasoHne and 
chloroform, but in doing so become less permeable to oxygen; and waxen 
membranes when wet with lime-sulphur also become less permeable 
to oxygen. 

Non-volatile finely powdered solids, such as borax, hellebore, sodium 
fluoride, etc., in addition to being stomach poisons, are effective also 
as contact insecticides because they adhere to exudations on the body 
wall, and later become dissolved and absorbed through the integument 
into the tissues. 

The Utilization or Parasitic Insects 

The economic use of parasitic insects shows three phases: (i) the 
utilization of the native parasites of the district; (2) the transportation 
of the parasites from one district to another; and (3) the importation 
of parasites from one country to another. 

1. In the great majority of cases of insect outbreak the native para- 
sites are able to control it in time. In fact injurious forms are mainly 
held in check by their parasites. Occasionally, however, through the 
operation of some obscure factor, the multipHcation of parasites is 
prevented; then the injurious forms are permitted to reproduce with 
much less check and much loss occurs before parasites are able to 
"catch-up" again. 

2. Some successes have been reported where parasites were trans- 
ported from one locality to another. LeBaron of Illinois in 1872 
introduced Aphelinus malt, a parasite of the Oyster Shell Scale. 
Webster in 1907 transported Polygnotus hiemalis from Marion, Pa., 
to a field of wheat infested with Hessian fly at Sharpsburg, Md., and 

26 



402 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

observed that later in the season nearly every "flaxseed" was para- 
sitized. W. D. Hunter introduced parasites of the Cotton Boll-weevil 
from Waco to Dallas and from Texas to Louisiana with considerable 
success (Fig. 254). 

3. Several conspicuous successes have attended the importation 
of parasites from foreign countries. Perhaps the introduction of the 
lady-bird, Novius cardinalis, from Australia to California in 1888 
for the purpose of controlling the Cottony Cushion or Fluted Scale of 
the Orange (Icerya purchasi) is one of the most interesting cases. 
This scale was brought to California about 1868, probably on Acacia 




Fig. 254. — Polygnotus hiemalis, a parasite of the Hessian fly: adult. Greatly- 
enlarged. {From Webster, U. S. Bur. Ent.) 

latifolia. It began to multiply rapidly in the orange and lemon groves 
in spite of every measure that was tried against it. Dr. Riley, U. S. 
entomologist, and his staff made the scale a subject of special study 
for 4 or 5 years and he became convinced that it was a native of 
Australia. Accordingly, two entomologists, Koebele and Webster, 
were sent to that country to collect possible parasites, and to send them 
to California. Novius cardinalis was found at Adelaide and small 
shipments of it were sent. The lady-birds began to feed on the 
Icerya scale insect as soon as they were liberated, and to breed rapidly 
— the result being that within a year the orange growers confessed 
that their groves had been saved. Later, Novius cardinalis was sent 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 403 

to New Zealand, Portugal, Cape Colony, Florida, Hawaiian Islands, 
Italy, Syria and Egypt, and equally good results were secured. Dr. 
Howard gives the following reasons for this success: (i) Novius pro- 
duces in one year double the number of generations that Icerya does; 

(2) Novius feeds preferably on eggs of Icerya; (3) the absence of para- 
sites of Novius; and (4) Novius is an active insect, while Icerya is fixed 
to the plant. 

Another interesting example of successful parasitism through 
importation in 1901 is that of Scutellista cyanea, a chalcid insect from 
South Africa to control the Black Scale of the Olive {Lecanium olece) of 
California. 

The West Indian Peach Scale (Diaspis pentagona) occurs in the 
Southern States but is not very injurious on account of the presence of 
a parasite, Prospaltella berlesei. Specimens of the parasite were sent 
to Italy where mulberry plantations were seriously injured, with the 
result that it is now well established and holding the scale in check. 

The recent attempt to control the Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths 
in New England has been of great value to entomologists in demon- 
strating the many complicated factors that exist when foreign parasites 
are introduced. From 1905 to 191 3 more than thirty species of para- 
sites were imported from Europe and Japan and a number of the most 
important ones have been accHmatized and are rapidly spreading. 

The present improvement in Massachusetts "is due to at least 
four main causes: (i) The perfection and standardization of the methods 
for artificial repression; (2) the death of a large proportion of the 
more susceptible trees or their removal from the infested woodlands; 

(3) the importation of parasitic and predatory insect enemies; (4) 
the development of the 'wilt' disease" (Fiske). 

The problem of the control of insects such as the Gypsy Moth and 
the Brown-tail Moth by parasites is a more difficult one than appears 
on the surface. From extensive studies of the life-history of the Gypsy 
Moth it has been determined that the probable potential rate of in- 
crease is 250-fold annually. On account, however, of the heavy death- 
rate from various causes the actual rate of increase is only 6- to lo-fold. 

The problem was then to secure sufficient parasites to keep the insect 
in control. In other words, if the increase annually be 6-fold, five out 
of every six insects, either egg, caterpillar, or pupa, or Ss-S P^r cent, 
would require to be parasitized. If the increase be lo-fold, nine out of 



404 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



every ten, or 90 per cent, must be parasitized. To rely entirely upon 
egg parasites, such as Anastatus or Schedius, to destroy such a large 
percentage of the eggs was out of the question, for these parasitized 
only the upper layer of eggs in each mass. It became necessary, 
therefore, to call in the aid of the parasites affecting the caterpillar and 
the pupa. Consequently efforts have been made to secure a sequence 
of parasites from foreign countries so that every stage of the moth is 
subjected to attack, and which would bring up the death-rate to 85 or 
90 per cent. (See Bull. 91, U. S. Bureau of Ent.) 










,vC>'r.l-^ 






Fig. 255. — Apanteles lacteicolor: adult female and cocoon. Much enlarged. (After 

Howard and Fiske.) 




The task of importing the foreign parasites of the Gypsy and the 
Brown-tail Moths to the United States has been a most arduous and 
difficult one. In the first place it has involved much labor in getting 
competent collectors in Europe to gather sufficient parasitized material, 
for the plan of the utilization of foreign parasites on a large scale in the 
control of injurious forms is recent in conception, and was put into 
operation for the first time by the U. S. Bureau of Entomology in the 
fight against the Gypsy and the Brown- tail Moths. In the second 
place, many difficulties in transportation have had to be overcome. 
In the third place, the work of sorting out the various parasites and 
herding them in sufficiently large numbers in the laboratories for 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 



405 




Fig. 256. — Pteromalus egregius: adult female. Greatly enlarged. {After Howard 

and Fiske.) 




Fig, 257. — Monodontomerus cereus: adult female. Greatly enlarged. (After Howard 

and Fiske.) 



4o6 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



colonization purposes in the field has been much greater than was 
anticipated at the outset. In the fourth place, the habits of many of 
the parasites were not well known and had to be determined for 
American conditions. As a result, many of the parasites reported 
favorably in Europe were found to be secondary parasites, or unsuited 
for the task in hand (Figs. 255-257). 

The parasites of the Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths may be grouped 
as follows: 

(I = Imported, N = Native, C = Chalcid, T = Tachinid, Ic = Ich- 
neumon, Ca = Carabid.) 



Host 


Egg parasites 


Larval parasites 


Pupal parasites 


Gypsy 


Anastatus bifasciatus Compsilura concinnata 


Monodontomerus 


Moth. 


(C.I.) (T.I.) 
Schedius kuvanae i Blepharipa scutellata 


aereus (C.I.) 




(C.I.) 


(T.I.) 
Calosoma sycophanta 
(Ca.I.) 




Brown-tail 


Trichogramma pretiosa 


Pteromalus egregius 


Monodontomerus 


Moth. 


(C.N.) 


(C.L) 


aereus (C.I.) 




• 


Apanteles lacteicolor 


Pimpla conquisitor 






(B.I.) 


(Ic.N.) 






Meteorus versicolor 


Chalcis compsilurae 






(B.I.) 


(C.N.) 






Zygobothria nidicola 








(T.I.) 








Pales favida (T.I.) 








Dexodes nigripes 








(T.I.) 








Calosoma sycophanta 








(Ca.I.) 





From Melrose Highlands, Mass., where the parasite laboratory is 
located, not only have the parasites and the predaceous Calosoma 
sycophanta been distributed throughout the infested areas of New Eng- 
land but also into New Brunswick and other eastern provinces lying in 
the probable zone of infestation. 

Hewitt introduced into Canada in 191 o the European ichneumonid, 
Mesoleius tenthredinidis Morley, to combat the larch saw-fly. The 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 407 

results have been fairly satisfactory. In 1908 the egg parasite, Tetra- 
stichus xanfhomelcencB, of the elm leaf beetle was introduced into New 
England from France. The results are not conclusive although the 
parasite has multiplied and spread slightly. 

Other examples of the introduction of parasites to combat injurious 
insects might be cited of which many have been unsuccessful. The 
valuable experience gained in the Gypsy and Brown-tail experiments 
will no doubt be utilized in future work of this nature and more successes 
will probably be recorded. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

General 

Berlese, a.: Gli Insetti. 1909. Societa Editrice Libraria-Milan. 

CoMSTOCK, J. H. : A Manual for the Study of Insects. 1895. Comstock Publishing 

Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 
Comstock, J. H.: The Wings of Insects. 1918. Comstock Pub. Co. 
Comstock, J. H., and A. B.: Insect Life. 1901. Appleton and Co., N. Y. 
EscHERiCH, K. : Forst Insekten Mitteleuropas. 1914. Paul Parey, Berlin. 
FoLSOM, J. W. : Entomology with Special Reference to its Biological and Economic 

Aspects. 3d Ed. 191 7. Blakiston's Son and Co., Philadelphia. 
Henneguy, L. F, : Les Insectes. 1904. Masson and Co., Paris. 
Howard, L. O. : The Insect Book. 1904. Doubleday Page and Co., N. Y. 
Kellogg, V. L. : American Insects. 1904. Henry Holt and Co., N. Y. 
Packard, A. D.: A Text-book of Entomology. 1898. MacMillan and Co. 
Sanderson and Jackson: Elementary Entomology. 191 2. Ginn and Co. 
Sharp, D.: Insects. 2 vols. 1895-99. Cambridge Nat. Hist., MacMillan Co., 

London. 
Smith, J. B.: Glossary of Entomology. 1906. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 

Economic 

Banks, Nathan: Index of American Economic Entomology. 1905-14. Am. 

Assoc. Ec. Entom. 
Chittenden, F. H. : Insects Injurious to Vegetables. 1907. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. 
EssiG, E. O. : Injurious and Beneficial Insects of California. 1915. 
Felt, E. P. : Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. 2 vols. 1905-06. N. Y. 

State Museum, Albany, N. Y. 
Herms, W. B. : Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 191 5. MacMillan Co., N. Y. 
Herrick, G. W. : Insects Injurious to the Household. 1914- MacMillan Co., N. Y. 
Herrick, G. W.: Insects of Economic Importance. 1915. Carpenter and Co., 

Ithaca, N. Y. 
Hewitt, C. G.: The House-fly. 1914. Cambridge Univ. Press, 



4o8 ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 

Hewitt, C. G. : House-flies and How They Spread Disease. 191 2. Camb. Science 

Manuals. 
Howard, L. O. : The House-fly: Disease Carrier. 191 1. Stokes, N. Y. 
O'Kane, W. C. : Injurious Insects. 191 2. MacMillan Co., N. Y. 
Ormerod, Eleanor: Text-book of Agricultural Entomology. 1892. Simpkin, 

Marshall and Co., London. 
OsBORN, H. : Agricultural Entomology. 1916. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia. 
Riley and Johannsen: Handbook of Medical Entomology. 191 5. Comstock 

Pub. Co. 
Sanderson, E. D.: Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard. 191 2. Wiley and 

Sons, N. Y. 
Saunders, W. : Insects Injurious to Fruits. 1883. Lippincott. 
Slingerland and Crosby: Manual of Fruit Insects. 1914. MacMillan Co., 

N. Y. 
Smith, J. B. : Economic Entomology. 1896. Lippincott Co. 
Smith, J. B.: Our Insect Friends and Foes. 1909. Lippincott Co. 
Washburn, F. L. : Injurious Insects and Useful Birds. 1918. Lippincott Co. 

Special Systematic 

Aldrich, J. M.: Catalogue of N. A. Diptera. 1905. Smithson Inst. 
Aldrich, J. M. : Sarcophaga and Allies. Thomas Say Foundation. 
Barnes and McDonnough: Check List of Lepidoptera of Boreal America. 
Blatchley, W. S. : Coleoptera of Indiana. Nature Publ. Co., Indianapolis, 
Blatchley, W. S. : Orthoptera of Indiana. Nature Publ. Co., Indianapolis. 
Blatchley andLENC: The Rhyncophora or Weevils of N. E. America. 
Brues and Melander. : Key to the Families of North American Insects. 1915. 
Cresson, E. T. : Families and Genera of the Hymenoptera. Philadelphia. 
Holland, W. J.: The Moth Book. 1903. Doubleday Page Co., N. Y. 
Holland, W. J. : The Butterfly Book. 1905. Doubleday Page Co., N. Y. 
Leconte and Horn: Families and Genera of the Coleoptera. 
Lutz, F. E: Field Book of Insects. 191 8. Putnam's Sons, N. Y, 
Sladen, F. W. L. : The Humble Bee. 1912. MacMillan Co., London. 
Van Duzee, E. P.: Check List of the Hemiptera. 1916. N. Y. Ent. Soc. 
ViERECK et al.: Hymenoptera of Connecticut. 191 7. Conn. Geol. Survey. 
Ward and Whipple: Fresh Water Biology. 191 8. Wiley and Son. 
Wheeler, W. M. : Ants. 1910. Columbia Univ. Press., N. Y. 
WiLLiSTON, S. W. : North American Diptera. 1908. Hathaway, N. Y. 

Publications 

Annals of the Entomological Psyche. 

Society of America. Reports and Bulletins of Federal, 

Canadian Entomologist. State and Provincial Departments 

Entomological News. of Agriculture. 

Journal of Economic Entomology. Review of Applied Entomology. 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 



409 



Acalyptrata. 
Acalypterae. 
Accessory Glands. 

Androconia. 

Aculeata. 
Agamic. 
Alate. 

Alternation of 
Generations. 

Alulae. 



Alulet. 
Amnion. 
Anal Angle. 

Anal Area. 

Anal Plate. 

Apterous. 
Arista. 

Arthropoda. 

Brachycerous. 

Caecimi. 



Calypter. 
C cecum. 
Capitate. 
Carabidoid. 
Cauda. 



GLOSSARY (After Smith) 

Those muscoid ilies in which alulae are absent or elementary. 

Any glands opening into the ducts of the reproductive system 

(Fig. 32). 
Specialized, usually small scales of peculiar form, found 

localized on some male butterflies. 
Hymenoptera; the stingers, including bees and wasps. 
Reproducing without union with a male. 
Winged. 
Periodic productions of parthenogenetic females in a species 

that occurs in both sexes. These females produce both 

sexes. Examples occur in Cynipidae and in some Homoptera. 
A pair of membranous scales above the halteres, behind the 

root of the wing, one above or before the other; the anterior 

attached to the wing and moving with it, the posterior 

fastened to the thorax and stationary. Occurs in Diptera. 

Synonyms calyptra; squama; squamula; lobulus; axillary 

lobe; aileron; scale; tegulae. In Coleoptera a membranous 

appendage of the elytra which prevents dislocation. 
The lobe at basal portion of wing in Diptera (posterior lobe). 

Sometimes used for alula. 
The inner of the two membranes enclosing the embryo 

(Fig. 36). 
That angle on the secondaries nearest the end of the abdomen 

when the wings are expanded. The angle between the 

inner and outer margin of any wing. 
In Orthoptera and Neuroptera the hinder or anal portion of a 

wing within the anal vein. 
In caterpillars the shield-like covering of the dorsum of the 

last segment (Fig. 18). 
Without wings. 
A specialized bristle or process on the antennae of certain 

Diptera (Fig. 180). 
Jointed animals having jointed appendages. 
Having short three-jointed antennae, Diptera (Fig. 144). 
A blind sac or tube supplied to appendages, opening into 

the alimentary canal at the junction of the mid and hind 

gut (Fig. 29). 
In Diptera, the alula when it covers the haltere. 
See Caecum. 

Terminating in a little head or knob (Fig. 88). 
Resembling a Carabid (Fig. 40). 
The tail; any process resembling a tail (Fig. 87). 



4IO 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Caudal Setae. 
Chaetotaxy. 

Chitin. 

Chrysalis — id. 

Cilia. 

Clavate. 

Clavus. 



Clypeus. 
Coarctate. 

Corium. 

Cornicles. 

Costa. 

Coxa. 
Coxal Cavity. 



Crenate. 
Cuneus. 



Dorsum. 
Ecdysis. 
Ecology. 

Elytra. 
Embolium. 



Empodium. 
Entomophagous. 



Thread-like processes at the end of the abdomen. 

The science dealing with the arrangement and nomenclature 
of the bristles on the body of insects. 

The material of which the hard parts of the insect body are 
formed. 

The intermediate stage between larvae and adult in the 
butterflies (Fig. 39). 

Fringes. 

Club-shaped; thickening gradually toward end (Fig. 87). 

The club of an antenna; clava and clavola; in Heteroptera 
the oblong sclerite at the base of the inferior margin of the 
hemelytra; the knob at the end of the stigmal or radial 
veins in certain Hymenoptera. 

The anterior median portion of the head to which the labrum 
is usually attached (Fig. 4). 

Contracted; compact. Applied to a pupa in which all the 
appendages are concealed in a hardened covering which is 
usually the last larval skin (Fig. 39). 

The elongate middle section of the hemelytra which extends 
from base to membrane below the embolium (Fig. loi). 

Glandular tubes on the abdomen of plant-lice which secrete 
a yellowish waxy liquid (Fig. 88). 

An elevated ridge that is rounded at its crest; the thickened 
anterior margin of a wing. 

The basal segment of the leg (Fig. 19). 

The opening or space in which the coxa articulates. In the 
Coleoptera the coxal cavity is said to be closed when the 
epimeron extends behind the coxa to the sternum. It is 
described as open when the epimeron does not reach the 
sternum (Fig. 185). 

Scalloped. 

Heteroptera; the small triangular area at the end of the 
embolium of hemelytra; Odonata, the small triangle of the 
vertex between the compound eyes (Fig. loi). 

The upper surface. 

Moulting or casting of the skin. 

The science of the relation of organisms to each other and 
to their surroundings. 

The anterior leathery or chitinous wings of beetles (Fig. 181). 

The narrow sclerite extending along the anterior margin of 
the hemelytra, from base to cuneus or membrane, in Heter- 
optera (Fig. loi). 

The small process between the pulvilli in Diptera. The bi- 
fid pseudotarsi between the claws in Coleoptera (p. 14). 

Insect-feeding. 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 



411 



Epistemum. 

Eruciform. 
Evaginate. 
Exserted. 
Foveola — ae. 
Frenulum. 



Front. 

Frontal Lunule, 
Gena. 
Genitalia. 
Halteres. 



Hermaphrodite. 
Heterogamy. 

Hibemaculum. 
Histogenesis. 
Histolysis. 
Hyper- 
metamorphosis. 
Hyperparasite. 
Imago. 
Instar. 
Integument. 
Labium. 
Labrum. 
Lacinia. 

Lamellate. 
Larva. 

Macrochaetae. 
Maggot. 
Mandibulate. 
Maxilla — ae. 



The anterior and larger lateral thoracic sclerite between the 

sternum and no turn (Fig. 18). 
Caterpillar-like in appearance (Fig. 38). 
Extruded by e version; turned inside out when extruded. 
Protruded. 

A pit-like shallow depression. 
The spine, simple in males, compound in females, arising 

from the base of secondaries in many Lepidoptera, whose 

function it is to unite the wings in flight (Fig. 120). 
Anterior portion of the head between the base of antennae 

and below the ocelli (Fig. 2). 
Diptera; an oval or crescentic space above the base of antennae 

in Cydorrhapha, bounded by the frontal suture. 
Cheek; that portion of the head below the eyes on each side 

extending to the gular suture (Fig. 2). 
External organs of reproduction and their appendages (p. 

23)- 
The poisers or balancers; capitate movable filaments in 

Diptera, situated one on each side of the thorax and repre- 
senting rudimentary hind wings (p. 15). 
A bisexual individual. 
Alternation of generations, two sexual or a sexual and a 

parthenogenetic. 
A tent or sheath in which a lan^a hibernates. 
The formation and development of tissue. 
The degeneration and dissolution of organic tissue. 
The case in which an insect passes through more than the 

normal stages of development (Fig. 40). 
A parasite that is parasitic upon another parasite. 
The adult or sexually mature insect. 
The period or stage between moults in a larva (Fig. 38). 
The outer covering to the insect body. 
The lower lip (Fig. 7). 
The upper lip (Fig. 4). 
The inner lobe of the first maxilla, articulated to the stipes, 

bearing brushes of hairs or spines (Fig. 6). 
Divided laterally into distinct leaf-like plates (Fig. 183). 
The second stage in the development of the insect, follows 

immediately after the egg stage. 
The long bristles occurring singly on the body of Diptera. 
The footless larva of Diptera (Fig. 38). 
With jaws or mandibles. 
Jaws; one on each side of the mouth immediately beneath 

the mandibles (Fig. 6). 



412 



ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 



Mentum. 
Mesenteron. 

Mesonotum. 

Metabolism. 

Metanotum. 

Metathorax. 
Microchaetse. 
Moniliform. 
Nectaries. 

Nymph. 

Obtect. 

Ocellus. 

Oogenesis. 

Ova. 

Ovipositor. 

Paedogenesis. 

Parthenogenesis. 

Pleura. 



Polyembryony. 
Pulvillus — i. 



Pupa. 
Puparium. 

Pygidiimi. 



Reticulate, 
Rostrum. 
Sclerite. 
Scrobes. 



A labial sclerite bearing the movable parts (Fig. 7). 

The middle portion of the primitive intestinal canal; the 

mid-gut (Figs, i, 36). 
The primitively upper surface of the middle thoracic ring 

(Fig. 18). 
Transformation, changes of food into tissue and of tissue into 

waste products. 
The primitively upper surface of the third or posterior 

thoracic ring (Fig. 18). 
The third thoracic ring or segment (Fig. 18). 
Small bristles, as opposed to macrochaetae, in Diptera. 
Beaded like a necklace (Fig. 183). 
A term which was applied to the cornicles of the Aphids 

under the mistaken notion that these structures secreted 

the honey dew (Fig. 88). 
The larval stage of insects with incomplete metamorphosis 

(Fig. 88). 
Wrapped in a hard covering (Fig. 39). 
A simple eye. 

The process of egg-formation. 
Eggs. 

The structure by means of which the eggs are placed (Fig, 23). 
Reproduction in the larval or the pupal stage. 
Reproduction by direct growth of germs from egg-cells 

without fertilization by the male. 
Plural of pleuron or pleurum; the lateral sclerites between 

the dorsal and sternal portion of the thorax; in general, 

the sides of the body between the dorsum and sternum. 
Production of more than one embryo from one egg. 
Soft, pad-like structures between tarsal claws; the cushions 

of short stiff hair or other clothing on the under side of 

tarsal joints; rarely fleshy lobes (p. 14). 
The intermediate stage between larva and adult (Fig. 39). 
The thickened larval skin within which the pupa is sometimes 

formed (Fig. 39). 
The last dorsal segment left exposed by the elytra. In 

DiaspifKB (Coccidae) the compound terminal segment 
(Fig. 127). 
Like net-work. 

A snout-like prolongation of the head. 
Any piece of the body- wall bounded by sutures (p. 2). 
Grooves formed for the reception or concealment of the 

appendages. In Rhyncophora grooves at the sides of the 

rostrum to receive the scape of antennae. 



THE CONTROL OF INJURIOUS INSECTS 



413 



Sensoria. 

Spermatogenesis. 
Spinneret. 

Spiracle. 

Stemite. 

Suctorial. 

Sulcus. 

Suture. 



Tergal. 
Thorax. 



Trachea — ae. 
Transition Zone. 



Truncate. 
Venation. ' 
Viscera. 
Vittate. 
Viviparous. 



The circular openings covered by membrane on the antennae 

or legs of plant-lice. 
Development of the spermatozoa. 
Any organ consisting of an internal tube, terminating in a 

pore, spine or process, producing a silky or waxy fibre. 
A breathing pore opening to the trachea (Fig. 28). 
The ventral piece in a ring or segment (Fig. 17). 
Adapted for sucking. 

A furrow or groove; a groove-like excavation. 
A seam or compressed line indicating the division of distinct 

parts of body-wall; the line of junction of elytra in Coleop- 

tera. 
Belonging to the primitively upper surface. 
The second or middle portion of the insect body, bearing the 

true legs and wings; made up of three sections, the pro-meso- 

and meta-thorax (p. 14). 
The breathing tubes of insects (p. 23). 
The transcontinental belt in which the austral and boreal 

elements overlap; it is divided into a humid or Alleghanian 

area, a western arid area, and a Pacific coast humid area. 
Cut oflE squarely at tip. 

The system of chitinous framework supporting the wings. 
The internal organs of the body. 
Striped. , 

Bearing living young. 



INDEX 



Abbott's sphinx, 178 
Abdomen, 17 
Acalyptrata, 241 
Acanthiidae, 159, 167 
Acarina, 364 
Accessory glands, 29 
Achemon sphinx, 178 
Achorutes, 96 
Acrididae, 107 
Acronycta, 87, 198 
Adalia bipunctata, 287 
Adult stage, 38 
Aedes, 243, 245 
^geriidae, 174, 216 
Agaristidae, 183 
Aglais antiopa, 176 
Agrilus anxius, 89, 301 

bilineatus, 301 

ruficollis, 84, 301 
Agriotes mancus, 293, 295 
Agromyza simplex, 263 
Agromyzidae, 242, 262 
Agrotis c-nigrum, 185 

fennica, 192 

unicolor, 185 

ypsilon, 186 
Alaus oculatus, 78 
Alder blight, 149 
Aleyrodes citri, 152 

vaporariorum, 90, 151 
Aleyrodidae, 122, 151 
Alfalfa caterpillar, 176 

insects, 73 

leaf weevil, 332 

looper, 194 
Alimentary canal, 24 



Allorhina, 304 

Alsophila pometaria, 78, 81, 87, 205 

Alypia octomaculata, 183 

Ambush bugs, 43, 159 

American cockroach, 104 

frit fly, 71, 261 

dagger moth, 87 

grass stem maggot, 261 
Ametastegia glabrata, 80, 347 
Ampelceca myron, 86, 178 
Amphibolips, 351 
Amphicerus bicaudatus, 82, 328 
Amphidasis cognataria, 206 
Anametis granulatus, 337 
Anaphothrips striatus, 72 
Anarsia li»eatella, 83, 86, 215 
Anasa tristis, 8, 46, 77, 160 
Anastatus bifasciatus, 200, 404, 406 
Anatis 15-punctata, 291 
Anatomy of insects, 2-30 
Ancylis comptana, 86, 232 

nubeculana, 79, 218, 230 
Andrena, 357 
Andrenidas, 356 
Androconia, 17 

Angoumois grain moth, 74, 214 
Anisandrus pyri, 341 
Anisota, 179 

Anobium tesselatum, 328 
Anomalon exile, 204 
Anopedius, 352 
Anopheles and malaria, 50 

maculipennis, 92, 243, 244 
Antennae, 10, 11 
Anthomyidae, 242, 273 
Anthonomus grandis, 333 

quadrigibbus, 80, 335 

signatus, 84, 87, 332 



415 



4i6 



INDEX 



Anthrax, 53 

Anthrenus scrophulariie, 92, 291 

Antique tussock moth, 203 

Ant lions, 43, 99, 100 

Ants, 92, 359 

Apanteles glomeratus, 175, 353 

lacteicolor, 202, 404, 406 

militaris, 190 
Aphelinus mali, 354, 401 

diaspidis, 129, 354 
Aphididae, 122, 136 
Aphidius, 352 

fletcheri, 149 

rapse, 148 
Aphids, 68, 136 
Aphis, 138 

abietina, 149 

a venae, 59, 71 

bakeri, 142 

brassicae, 77, 148 

forbesi, 148 

gossypii, 47, 77, 148 

maidis, 72, 142 • 

maidi-radicis, 72, 142 

mali, 78, 143 

malifoliae, 144 

persicae-niger, 147 

pomi, 78, 143 

pseudobrassicae, 148 

rumicis, 74, 148 

sanborni, 85, 147 

sorbi, 78, 144 

varians, 147 
Aphis-lion, 43, 100 
Aphycus, 354 
Apidae, 356, 357 

Apis mellifera, 10, 12, 19, 40, 357, 358 
Apoidea, 345, 356 
Apple aphids, 78, 80 

bud aphis, 78, 80, 142 

curculio, 80, 331 

ermine moth, 233 
, fruit miner, 233 

insects, 77-80 

leaf bucculatrix, 80, 236 

leaf crumpler, 79, 213 



Apple leaf hopper, 155 

leaf miner, 79, 235 

leaf rollers, 78, 79, 229 

leaf sewer, 79, 218, 230 

leaf skeletonizer, 79, 213 

maggot, 80, 266 

red bugs, 165 

seed chalcid, 80, 355 

sphinx, 79, 178 

tent caterpillar, 79, 87, 203 

worm, 219 
Apple-tree borer, flat-headed, 78, 300 

round-headed, 78, 320 
Application of poisons, 377, 386 
Aptera, 94 
Arachnida, i, 364 
Arctiidae, 173, 181 
Argasidae, 364, 365 
Argentine ant, 360 
Argyresthia conjugella, 233 

thuiella, 233 
Argyroploce consanguinana, 226 
Armadillidium vulgare, 363 
Army beetles, 325 

cutworms, 187, 192 

worms, 71, 190 
Arsenate of lead, 384 

lime, 385 
Arsenic, white, 384, 393 
Arsenite of lime, 384' 
Arthropoda, i 

Artificial methods of control, 374, 377 
Asaphes decoloratus, 293, 297 
Ash gray pinion, 197 
Asilidae, 240 
Asparagus beetles, 36, 61, 63, 312 

miner, 263 
Aspen tortrix, 230 
Aspidiotus, 123 

ancylus, 126 

forbesi, 127, 128 

hederae, 134 

ostreaeformis, 128 

perniciosus, 78, 80, 126, 127 
Aspidisca splendoriferella, 79, 232 
Aspidistra scale, 90, 135 



INDEX 



417 



Assassin bugs, 43 
Asterolecanium variolosum, 130 
Atropos divinatoria, 103 
Attagenus piceus, 292 
Auchenorhynchi, 122 
Aulacaspis rosas, 123, 128 
Austral zones, 61 
Australian cockroach, 104 
Autographa brassicae, 193 

californica, 194 

simplex, 194 
Automeris io, 180 



B 



Babesia bovis, 56 
Bachmetjew, Dr., 59 
Bacillus amylovorus, 46 

pestis, 55 
Bagworm moths, 174, 207 
Baits, poison, 398 
Baker, A. C, 141 
Banded flea beetle, 316 
Bands, metal, 396 
Bark beetles, 339 
Bassus earinoides, 226, 353 
Bean aphis, 74, 148 

insects, 74 

leaf beetle, 313 

weevil, 74, 319 
Bed bugs, 92 
Bee flies, 240 

moths, 212 
Beech tree blight, 149 
Bees, 345, 356 
Beet leaf hopper, 155 

leaf miner, 277 
Beetles, 280 

Bembecia marginata, 84, 218 
Beneficial insects, 39-44 
Berlese, Prof., 40 
Bethune, Dr. C. J. S., xiii 
Bethune's green fruit worm, 197 
Bibliography, 407 
Bill bugs, 338 
Biosteres rhagoletis, 267 
27 



Birch leaf skeletonizer, 88, 236 

saw fly, 346 
Birds, 44 
Biting lice, 106 
Black ants, 92 

apple leaf hopper, 155 

army worm, 192 

bodied cherry fruit fly, 266 

carpet beetle, 292 

chrysanthemum aphis, 149 

flies, 53, 251 

horned tree cricket, 116 

leaf, 40, 391 

peach aphis, 144 

snouted rose beetle, 335 

swallow tail, 174 

vine weevil, 336 
Blackberry crown borer, 218 

insects, 84 
Blastoderm, 30 
Blastula, 31 
Blatta, 103, 104 
Blattidae, 103 
Blattoidea, 102, 103 
Blepharipa scutellata, 200, 406 
Blissus leucopterus, 71, 161 
Blister beetles, 77, 325 

mites, 368 
Blood gills, 23 
Blow fly, 53, 92, 273 
Bluebottle fly, 273 
Body louse of man, 56, 168 
Bombus, 357 
Bombycidse, 179 
Bombyliidae, 240 
Bombyx mori, 40, 179 
Book lice, 103 
Borax, 399 
Bordeaux mixture, 395 

nozzle, 380 
Borers, 78, 88, 89 
Bot flies, 60, 254 
Box-elder plant bug, 159 
Brachycera, 239 
Brachycolus tritici, 141 
Braconid flies, 42 



4i8 



INDEX 



Braconidae, 42, 344, 352 

Brain, 28 

Bramble flea-louse, 84, 152 

crown-borer, 84, 218 
Breeding cages, 67-69 
Bronze apple-tree weevil, 335 

birch borer, 89, 301 

cutworm, 188 
Brown tail moth, 60, 64, 88, 200, 403 
Bruce's measuring worm, 207 
Bruchidae, 283, 319 
Bruchophagus funebris, 73, 355 
Bruchus obtectus, 74, 319 

pisorum, 74, 319 
Bryobia pratensis, 80, 367 
Bucculatrix canadensisella, 88, 236 

pomifoliella, 80, 236 
Bud moth, 23, 26, 36, 78, 79, 225 
Buffalo carpet beetle, 92, 291 

tree-hopper, 78, 157 
Bumble flower beetle, 80, 305 
Buprestidae, 283, 300 
Butterflies, 94 

Butterfly, mouth parts of, 9, 10 
Byturus unicolor, 84, 292 



Cabbage aphis, 77, 148 

butterfly, 63, 175 

looper, 193 

plant louse, 77, 148 

root maggot, 36, 76, 273 

worm, 76, 77, 17s 
Cacoecia argyrospila, 229 

cerasivorana, 230 

conflictana, 230 

obsoletana, 232 

rosaceana, 230 
Cadelle, 76, 327 
Caddice flies, 99 
Caesar, Prof. L., 60, 229 
Calandra granaria, 75, 2>M 

oryzae, 75, 337 
Calandridae, 284, 337 
Caliroa cerasi, 348 



Calliphora, 270 

erythrocephala, 273 

vomitoria, 92, 273 
Callipterus, 137 
Callosamia promethea, 82, 180 
Calosoma calidum, 287 

scrutator, 287 

sycophanta, 200, 202, 287, 406 
Calyptrata, 242 
Camnula pellucida, 113 
Campodeidae, 95 
Camponotinae, 360 
Camponotus, 360 
Canker worm, fall, 78, 205 

spring, 78, 205 
Cantharis nuttalli, 325 
Capsidae, 159, 163 
Carabidae, 41, 282, 285 
Carbolic acid emulsion, 392, 395 
Carbolineum emulsion, 396 
Carbon bisulphide, 393 

tetrachloride, 395 
Carnivora, 280, 282 
Carolina locust, 113 
Carpenter bee, 357 

moth, 88, 237, 238 
Carpocapsa pomonella, 80, 219 
Carrion beetles, 293 
Case bearers, 234 

making clothes moth, 236 
Cat and dog flea, 92, 280 
Caterpillar, 34 
Catocala, 198 
Cattle dips, 392 

insects, 91 

louse, 91, 169 

tick, 366 
Cecidomyiidae, 239, 245 
Cecropia moth, 79, 180 
Celerio lineata, 178 
Celery looper, 194 
Centipedes, i 

Cephus occidentalis, 71, 349 
Cerambycidae, 283, 320 
Ceramica picta, 76, 188 
Ceratina, 357 



INDEX 



419 



Ceratitis capitata, 264 
Ceratopogon, 252 
Cerci, 17 

Cercopodse, 122, 153 
Cereal insects, 71, 72 
Ceresa bubalus, 77, 83, 157 
Cerodonta dorsalis, 263 
Ceuthophilus, 114 
Chaetopsis oenea, 277 
Chaitophorus, 136 

negundinis, 149 
Chalcid flies, 42 
Chalcididae, 42, 344, 353 
Charts of life cycles, 221, 225, 247 
Checkered beetles, 283 

tiger moth, 183 
Cheese-cloth screens, 396 
Chermes, 139 

abietis, 89, 149 

cooleyi, 148 

funitectis, 148 

pinicorticis, 90, 150 

similis, 89, 150 
Cherry aphis, 139 

ermine moth, 233 

fruit fly, black-bodied, 83, 265 

fruit fly, white-banded, 83 

insects, 82 

leaf beetle, 82, 311 

leaf miner, 348 

saw fly, 348 

tree tortrix, 82, 230 
Chicken lice, 91, loi 

mite, 91, 364 
Chilocorus bivulnerus, 288, 289 
Chilopoda, i 
Chin flies, 259 
Chinch bug, 61, 71, 72, 161 
Chionaspis euonymi, 128 

furfurus, 78, 81, 125 
Chironomidae, 240, 252 
Chorizagrotis auxiliaris, 187 
Chrysanthemum black aphis, 149 
Chrysididae, 345 

Chrysobothris femorata, 78, 89, 300 
Chrysomelidae, 283, 306 



Chrysomphalus, 123 

aonidum, 134 
Chrysomyia, 268, 273 
Cicada, 156 

septendecem, 156 

tibicen, 82, 157 
Cicadellidae, 122, 154 
Cicadidae, 122, 156 
Cicadula 6-notata, 72, 154 
Cicindela, 284 
Cicindelidae, 41, 282, 284 
Cigar case-bearer, 78, 234 
Cigarette beetle, 328 
Cimbex americana, 88, 347 
Cimex lectularius, 92, 167 
Circular scale, 134 
Circulatory system, 23, 24, 71, 190 
Cirphis unipuncta, 23, 24, 71, 190 
Citheroniidae, 179 
Citrus mealy bug, 133 

white fly, 152 
Cladius pecticornis, 349 
Classification of insects, 93 
Clavicornia, 280, 282 
Clear winged locust, 113 

moths, 174, 216 
Cleridae, 283 
Click beetles, 293 
Climatic factors, 61, 373 
Climbing cutworms, 81, 192 
Clothes moths, 92, 236 
Clouded apple capsid, 165 
Clover aphis, 142 

cutworm, 189 

hay worm, 73, 208 

insects, 73 

leaf midge, 73, 248 

leaf weevil, 63, 73, 332 

mealy bug, 73 

mite, 80, 367 

root borer, 63, 73, 341 

root mealy bug, 133 

seed caterpillar, 73, 228 

seed chalcid, 73, 355 

seed midge, 73, 246 
Club-horn beetles, 280 



420 



INDEX 



Cluster fly, 53, 273 
Coal tar, 395 
Coccidae, 122 
Coccinae, 123, 129 
Coccinella, 5-notata, 290 

9-notata, 290 
Coccinellidse, 281, 287 
Coccobacillus acridiorum, 46 
Coccophagus, 354 
Coccus, 123 

hesperidum, 134 
Cockroaches, 92 
Codling moth, 59, 80, 219 

records, 221 
Coecal tubes, 26 
Coelopistha nematicida, 354 
Coleoptera, 94, 280 
Collembola, 93, 95 
Colopha, 138 

Colorado potato beetle, 77, 308 
Common striped cutworm, 187 
Compsilura concinnata, 200, 202, 406 
Comstock, Prof. J. H., 16, 298 
Conchylidae, 174 
Confused flour beetle, 75, 329 
Conopidas, 241 

Conotrachelus nenuphar, 81, 83, 330 
Contact insecticides, 386 
Contarinia johnsoni, 249 
Control of insects, 373 
Convergent ladybird, 288 
Co-operative measures, 375 
Coptodisca splendoriferella, 232 
Cordyceps, 46, 304 
Coreidae, 159 
Corimelaenidae, 159, 167 
Corn ant, 362 

bill bugs, 72, 338 

ear worm, 73, 195 

feeding syrphid fly, 251 

insects, 72 

leaf aphis, 72, 73, 142 

leaf miner, 263 

root aphis, 72, 140, 141, 142 

seed maggot, 72, 277 

stalk borer, 211 



Corn wire worm, 72, 211 
Cornicles, 137 
Corymbites, 78, 297 
Cosmopepla carnifex, 167 
Cossidae, 174, 237 
Cost of spraying, 381 
Cotalpa, 302, 304 
Cotton boll weevil, 59, 333 

worm, 196 

-wood leaf beetles, 310 
Cottony grass scale, 130 

maple scale, 89, 130 
Crab-louse of man, 168 
Crambidae, 210 
Crambus hortuellus, 211 
Cranberry girdler, 211 
Crane flies, 242 
Craponius inaequalis, 336 
Cremastogaster, 360 
Creolin, 396 
Crepidodera helxines, 311 

rufipes, 316 
Cricket-like grasshoppers, 114 
Crickets, 107 
Crioceris asparagi, 64, 312 

i2-punctata, 313 
Crop rotation, 374 
Croton bug, 105 
Crustacea, i, 363 
Cryptohypnus, 297 
Cryptorhynchus lapathi, 329 
Ctenocephalis canis, 280 
Cucumber beetles, 77, 307, 308 
Cucujidae, 327 
Culex, 52, 243 

pipiens, 92, 243 
Culicidae, 239, 243 
Culicoides, 252 
Cultivation of the soil, 375 
Cultural control methods, 374 
Curculio, apple, 80, 332 

plum, 330 
Curculionidae, 284, 329 
Currant borer, 84, 217 

fruit fly, 85, 265 . 

fruit miner, 85, 265 



INDEX 



421 



Currant insects, 84, 85 

lecanium, 84 

moth, 206 

plant louse, 85, 145 

spanworm, 85, 206 

stem girdler, 84, 345 

worm, 85, 346 
Curtis scale, 128 
Cutworms, 72, 74, 76, 77, 185 

climbing, 81 

control of, 185 
Cyclamen borer, 90, 336 

mite, 369 
Cyclocephala, 302, 304 
Cyclorrhapha, 239 
Cyllene robinise, 89, 322 
Cymatophora ribearia, 85, 206 
Cynipidae, 344, 351 
Cynomyia cadaverina, 273 



D 



Dactylopinae, 123, 131 
Dagger moths, 197 
Damsel flies, 99 
Danaidae, 177 
Danais archippus, 177 
Dark meal worm, 76, 329 
Darkling beetles, 328 
Dark-sided cutworm, 186 
Dasyneura leguminicola, 73, 246 

rhodophaga, 90, 248 

trifolii, 73, 248 
Datana integerrima, 88, 199 

ministra, 79, 198 
Davis, J. J., 66-68, 141 
Death watch beetles, 328 
Dendroctonus, 342 
Depressaria heracliana, 215 
Dermacentor variabilis, 367 

venustus, 56, 366 
Dermanyssidae, 364 
Dermanyssus gallinae, 364 
Dermaptera, 102, 106 
Dermestes lardarius, 92, 291 
Dermestidae, 282, 291 



Desmia funeralis, 209 
Development of insects, 30 
Dexiidae, 242 
Diabrotica longicornis, 64, 308 

i2-punctata, 64, 308 

vittata, 77, 307 
Diacrisia virginica, 181 
Dialeurodes citri, 152 
Diamond back moth, 76, 232 
Diapheromera femorata, 106 
Diaspinae, 123 
Diaspis, 123, 403 
Diastrophus turgidus, 351 
Diatraea saccharalis, 211 
Dibrachys, 354 
Dicerca, 82 

Dichomeris ligulella, 79, 215 
Differential locust, 112 
Digestive system, 24-28 
Digger wasps, 356 
Dingy cutworm, 193 
Diplopoda, i, 369 
Diplosis tritici, 72, 249 
Diptera, 93, 239 
Diseases by insects, 46, 49-57 

of insects, 45 
Disk nozzle, 380 
Disonycha xanthomelaena, 317 
Dissosteira Carolina, 109, 113 
Distribution of insects, 60-64 
Ditches, 399 
Diving beetles, 282 
Doane, Prof. R. W., 55 
Dobson flies, 99 
Dock false-worm, 80, 347 
Docophorus icterodes, loi 
Dog day harvest fly, 157 

flea, 280 

louse, 169 
Double host aphids, 150 
Dragon flies, 99 

Drasterius elegans, 293, 295, 296 
Drosophila ampelophila, 260 
Drosophilidae, 242, 260 
Drug store beetles, 328 
Dryocoetes confusus, 342 



422 



INDEX 



Duck lice, loi 
Dung-eating beetles, 301 
Dust spraying, 382 
Dytiscidae, 282 

E 

Earwigs, 102, 106 
Earworm, corn, 195 
Eccoptogaster rugulosus, 78, 339 
Ecdysis, 34 
Ecological sciences, 65 
Ectobia germanica, 92, 103, 105 
Eel worms, 371 
Eight-spotted forester, 183 
Elaphidion villosum, 89, 324 
Elateridae, 283, 293 
Elm bark louse, 89, 130 

borer, 89 

leaf beetle, 63, 88, 309 

saw fly, 88, 347 
Embryology, 30-33 
Emphytus, 87, 349 
Empoa rosae, 156 
Empoasca mali, 155 
Empusa, 46 ' 
Endelomyia rosae, 348 

aethiops, 349 
English grain aphis, 71 
Ennomidae, 206 
Ennomos, 88 
Entomobryidae, 96 
Entomophagous, 40 
Entomophthora, 46 
Entomoscelis adonidis, 76, 309 
Ephemerida, 97, 98 
Ephestia kuehniella, 74, 213 
Epicauta cinerea, 37, 38, 77, 325 

marginata, 326 

pennsylvanica, 77, 326 

vittata, 37, 326 
Epicerus imbricatus, 78, 82 
Epilachna borealis, 290, 291 
Epitrimerus pyri, 368 
Epitrix cucumeris, 77, 313 

subscrinata, 314 



Epochra, 264 

canadensis, 85, 265 
Erannis defoliaria, 207 

tiliaria, 88, 206 
Eriocampoides limacina, 82, 348 
Eriococcus, 124 
Eriopeltis festucas, 130 
Eriophyes pyri, 368 
Eriophyidas, 364, 368 
Eriosoma, 138 
Eristalis, 251 
Eruciform larva, :^:^ 
Erythroneura vitis, 155 
Escherich, Dr., 34, 35 
Estigmene acraea, 181 
Eucosmidas, 218 
Euonymus scale, 128 
Eupelmus, 354 
Euphoria, 302 

inda, 80, 305 
Euproctis chrysorrhoea, 88, 200 
European corn borer, 72, 212 

earwig, 106 

fruit lecanium, 129 

grain aphis, 71, 141 
Eurymus eurytheme, 176 
Eutettix tenella, 46, 155 
Euthrips tritici, 122 
Euxoa auxiliaris, 58 

excellens, 188 

messoria, 186 

ochrogaster, 187 

tesselata, 187 
Evergestis rimosalis, 209 
Evergreen bagworm, 207 
External anatomy, 2-19 
Eyed elater, 78 
Eyes, II 



Factors of insect control, 373 

Fall army worm, 192 
canker worm, 205 
webworm, 79, 87, 181 

False tarnished plant bug, 164 



INDEX 



423 



Fannia canicularis, 53 

scalaris, 53 
Fat bodies, 24 
Feather lice, 100 
Felt tar paper, 397 
Feltia ducens, 193 
Fernald, Prof. H. T., 63 
Fevers, 49-52 
Fidia viticida, 85, 311 
Field stations, xii, 64 
Fiery hunter, 287 
Fifteen-spotted ladybird, 291 
Filariasis, 52 
Fir saw fly, 346 
Fire flies, 283 
Fish moths, 95 
Fiske, W. F., 403 
Fitch, Asa, xi, xiii 
Five-spotted ladybird, 290 
Flat-headed apple tree borer, 78, 300 
Flea beetles, 313 

alder, 318 

banded, 316 

cucumber, 77 

grape vine, 316 

horse radish, 315 

mangel, 318 

pale striped, 316 

potato, 77, 314 

red-headed, 316 

red-legged, 317 

smartweed, 316 

spinach, 317 

strawberry, 86, 317 

turnip, 76, 315 

western potato, 315 

willow, 317 
Fleas, 55, 279 
Flesh flies, 242 
Fletcher, Dr. Jas., xiii 
Flies, 53 

Flour beetles, 75 
Flower flies, 43, 240, 250 
Forbes, Dr. S. A., 40, 48, 60, 141, 298 
Forbes scale, 128 
Forest bark beetles, 342 



Forest tent-caterpillar, 87, 204 
Forficula auricularia, 106 
Formalin, 394 
Formicidae, 359 
Formicoidea, 345, 359 
Four-lined leaf bug, 85, 163 
Fruit aphids, 143 

bark beetles, 78, 81, 339 

flies, 264 

leaf syneta, 311 

lecanium, 81 

tree leaf roller, 78, 229 

worms, green, 80, 197 
Froghoppers, 72, 153 
Fulgoridae, 122 
Fumigation, 394 



Gad flies, 53, 252 
Galerita janus, 281 
Galerucella clavicollis, 82, 311 

decora, 310 

luteola, 88, 309 
Gall flies, 45, 351 

gnats, 45 

lice, 45 

midges, 45, 245 
Galleria mellonella, 212 
Galleriidae, 212 
Gamasidae, 364 
Ganglia, 28 
Garden aphids, 148 

slugs, 370 

stalk borer, 196 

vegetable insects, 77 
Gastric coeca, 26 
Gastrophilus haemorrhoidalis, 91, 254, 

259 

intestinalis, 91, 254, 258 

nasalis, 91, 254, 250 
Gastropoda, 370 
Geese lice, 10 1 
Gelechiidae, 214 
Genitalia, 17, 18 
Geometridse, 204 



424 



INDEX 



Geometrids, 170 
Geometrina, 170, 204 
Germ band, 31,32 
German cockroach, 92 
Giant root borer, 83, 322 
Gizzard, 24 
Glassy cutworm, 188 
Glossary, 409 
Glossina, 54 
Goat moth, 238 
Golden oak scale, 130 
Gonapophysies, 17 
Goniocotes abdominalis, 101 

burnetti, loi 

hologaster, loi 
Goniodes dissimilis, loi 

stylifer, 102 
Gooseberry insects, 84, 85 
Gortyna, 196 
Gossyparia, 124 

spuria, 89, 130 
Grain aphis, 141 

weevils, 337 
Granary weevil, 75, ^;^-;i 
Grape berry moth, 86, 228 

blossom midge, 249 

curculio, 336 

insects, 85, 86 

leaf folder, 209 

leaf hopper, 86, 155 

phylloxera, 85, 86, 148 

root worm, 85, 311 

sphinx, 86, 178 

vine fidia, 85, 311 

vine flea beetle, 86, 315 
Grapholithida?, 86, 178 
Graptolitha, 80, 197 
Grass feeding froghopper, 153 

stem maggots, 260 

thrips, 72 
Greasy cutworm, 186 
Green apple aphis, 78, 141, 143 

bottle flies, 273 

bug, 142 

clover worm, 195 

fruit worm, 80, 197 



Green gooseberry aphis, 147 

peach aphis, 83, 144 

rose aphis, 149 

soldier bug, 166 

thrips, 119 
Greenhouse insects, 90 

leaf tyer, 210 

orthezia, 135 

scales, 90, 133-135 
Ground beetles, 40, 41, 282, 285 
Grub, 34 

Gryllidae, 107, 114 
Gryllotalpa, 114 
Gryllus pennsylvanicus, 115 
Gypsy moth, 64, 87, 200, 403 
Gyrinida?, 282 
Gyropidae, 100 



H 



Hadwen, Dr. S., 256 
Haematobia, 268 

serrata, 91, 272 
Haematopinus, 168 

asini, 169 

curysternus, 91, 169 

piliferus, 169 

urius, 91, 169 

vituli, 91, 169 
Halictus, 357 
Halisidota, caryae, 64, 183 

maculata, 183 

tessellaris, 87, 183 
Haltica chalybea, 86, 315 

ignita, 316 
Hamamelistes, 138 
Handmaid moths, 198 
Haploptilia fletcherella, 234 

malivorella, 235 
Haploptilidae, 234 
Hard scales, 124 
Harlequin cabbage bug, 63, 166 
Harmologa fumiferana, 231 
Harpalus caliginosus, 287 

pennsylvanicus, 287 
Harpiphorus maculatus, 347 



INDEX 



4'^5 



Hawk moths, 169 

Hay worm, clover, 73 

Head, 2 

Head-louse of man, 168 

Hearing, organs of, 11 

Hedgehog caterpillar, 181 

Heliothis obsoleta, 73, 195 

Heliothrips ha^morrhoidalis, 119 

Heliozelidae, 232 

Hellebore, 385 

Hemerocampa leucostigma, 79, 87, 202 

Hemichionaspis aspidistras, 90, 135 

Hemiptera, 43, 94, 158 

Hemispherical scale, 132, 134 

Hesperidae, 169 

Hessian fly, 39, 59, 60, 71, 245 

Heterocordylus malinus, 165 

Heterodera radicicola, 371 

Heteromera, 281, 283 

Heterometabolic, 33 

Heteroptera, 158 

Hewitt, Dr. C. G., 58, 406 

Hickory tiger moth, 183 

Hippoboscidae, 279 

Hippodamia convergens, 288, 289 

13-punctata, 290 
Histogenesis, 37 
Histolysis, 37 
Hog louse, 9I; 169 

pests, 91 
Holcaspis, 351 
Holometabolic, S3 
Homalomyia brevis, 278 

canicularis, 53, 278 

scalaris, 53, 278 
Homoptera, 94, 122 
Honey bee, 10, 12, 19, 40, 357, 358 
Hookworm disease, 56 
Hop merchant, 176 

plant louse, 145 

red bug, 165 

vine looper, 195 
Hopperdozer, 399 
Hormaphis, 138 
Horn fly, 38, 53 63, 272 

tails, 350 



Hornet, white faced, 356 

yellow jacket, 356 
Horse bot fly, 91, 258^259 

flies, 8, 240, 252 

insects, 91 

louse, 169 
House ant, 92, 361 

flea, 279, 280 

fly; 7, 18, 53, 92, 270 

hold pests, 92 
Howard, Dr. L. O., vii, 403 
Human flea, 279 
Hunter, Prof. W. D., 402 
Hyadaphis, 138 
Hyalopterus, 138 

arundinis, 147 
Hydrocyanic acid gas, 394 
Hydrcecia, 196 
Hydrophilidae, 282 
Hylastinus obscurus, 64, 73, 341 
Hylemyia antiqua, 276 
Hylotoma pectoralis, 346 
Hymenoptera, 94, 343 
Hypena humuli, 195 
Hyperaspis signata, 288 ' . 
Hypermetamorphosis, 'S^ 
Hyperparasitism, 43 
Hyphantria, textor, 79, 87 
Hypoderma bo vis, 91 y 257 

lineatum, 91, 255 
Hypsopygia, costalis, 73, 280 



Icerya purchasi, 402 
Ichneumon flies, 41 
Ichneumonidae, 41, 344, 352 
Idiocerus fitchi, 155 
Imaginal buds, 37 
Imago stage, 38 
Imbricated snout beetle, 78 
Imported cabbage worm, 63, 64, 77, 175 
currant borer, 84, 217 
worm, 346 
Incomplete metamorphosis, s^ 
Indian euphoria, 80, 305 



426 



INDEX 



Indian meal moth, 74, 214 

Insect behavior toward stimuh', 57, 58 

Insects and birds, 44 

as carriers of plant diseases, 46-47 

and disease, 49-57 

distribution of, 60-64 

and plants, 45 

in relation to temperature, 59-60 
Insectary, 66-68 
Insecticides, 377 

action of, 400 
Insectivorous plants, 45 
Internal anatomy, 19-30 

changes, 2,7 
Inter-relations in nature, 45 
Intromittent organ, 28 
lo moth, 82, 180 
Ipidai, 284, 339 
Isaria, 46 
Ischnoptera, 103 
Isia Isabella, 181 
Isomera, 280 
Isoptera, 102 
Isosoma grande, 354 

hordci, 355 

secale, 355 . 

tritici, 71, 354 
Itamera ribearia, 206 
Itch mite of man, 365 

poultry, 91, 365 
Ivy scale, 134 
Ixodida;, 364, 366 



Janus integer, 84, 345 
Jarring, 399 
Jassoidea, 122 
Joint worm, 71, 354 
Julidx, 369 
Julus canadensis, 369 

coeruleocinctus, 370 

virgatus, 370 
Jumping plant lice, 122 
June beetles, 302, 303 



K 

Katydids, 114 
Kellogg, Prof. V. L., 50 
Kermes, 124, 131 
Kerosene, 395 

emulsion, xi, 391 



Labia minor, 106 
Lace wings, 43, 99, 100 
Lachnosterna, 80, 81, 302, 303 
Lachnus, 136 
Ladybirds, 40, 41 
Lamellicornia, 281, 283 
Lampyridae, 283 
Languria mozardi, 173 
Laphygma frugiperda, 192 
Larch saw fly, 88, 346 
Larder beetle, 92, 282, 291 
Large blue bottle fly, 273 
Larger corn stalk borer, 211 
Larvae, classification of, 34-35 
Larval stage, 32-35 
Lasiocampidae, 174, 203 
Lasioderma serricorne, 328 
Lasius niger, 48, 140, 360, 362 
Laspeyresia interstinctana, 73, 228 » 

nigricana, 74, 226 

prunivora, 80, 227 
Latrine fly, 53, 278 
Lead arsenate, 384 
Leaf beetles, 80, 283, 306 

bugs, 159, 163 

chafers, 283, 302 

crumpler, 78, 83, 213 

hoppers, 122, 154 

horn beetles, 281 

miner flies, 262 

miners, 79, 235 

rollers, 78, 229 

sewer, 79, 218, 230 

skeletonizer, 79, 236 
Leather jackets, 71, 242 
Lebia grandis, 286 



INDEX 



427 



Lecanium corni, 81, 129 

nigrofasciatum, 83, 90, 129 

oleoe, 403 

ribis, 84 
Legs, 14 

Leopard moth, 88, 237 
Lepidoptera, 94, 169 
Lepidosaphes ulmi, 78, 81, 124 
Lepisma domestica, 95 

saccharina, 94 
Lepismidae, 94 
Leprosy, 56 

Leptinotarsa lo-lineata, 77, 308 
Leptocoris trivittatiis, 159 
Lesser apple worm, 80, 227 

bud moth, 215 

clover leaf weevil, 332 

house fly, 278 

leaf roller, 231 

migratory locust, 1 1 1 

peach borer, 217 
Leucotermes flavipes, 103 
Lice, biting, 100 

sucking, 56 
Life cycle charts, 221, 225, 247 

zones, 61, 62 
Ligyrus, 304 
Limax, 370 
Lime, 389 

sulphur, 386 

tree winter moth, 88, 206 
Lina interrupta, 310 

scripta, 310 

tremulae, 310 
Liotheidae, 100 
Liparida;, 170 
Lipeurus poly trapezius, 102 

squalidus, 102 

tadornae, loi 

variabilis, loi 
Little house fly, 278 
Locust borer, 89, 322 
Locustidse, 107 
Locusts, 107 

Long horned beetles, 320 
grasshoppers, 114 



Long tailed mealy bug, 133 
Longistigma, 136 
Loopers, 193, 204 
Lophyrus abbotti, 346 

abietis, 346 
Losses due to insects, 38-39 
Loxostege sticticalis, 210 
Lucanidae, 283, 318 
Lucanus dama, 82 
Lucilia, 270 

caesar, 273 
Luna moth, 180 
Lycaenidae, 169 
Lycophotia margaritosa, 186 

scandens, 192 
Lyctidae, 328 
Lyctus, 328 
Lygaeidae, 159 

Lygaeonematus erichsonii, 88, 346 
Lygidia mendax, 165 
Lygus communis, 164 

invitus, 164 

pratensis, 84, 163 
Lymantriidae, 170, 200 
Lyonetiidae, 236 
Lyperosia, 268 
Lysiphlebus tritici, 352 

M 

Macrobasis unicolor, 326 
Macrodactylus subspinosus, 82, 83, 305 
Macrolepidoptera, 169 
Macrosiphum, 138 

granariura, 71, 141 

pisi, 73, 149 

rosae, 149 

sanborni, 90, 149 

solanifolii, 77, 149 
Magdalis oenescens, 335 
Maggot, 34 

apple, 266 

onion, 276 

seed corn, 72, 277 

wheat stem, 71, 72, 260 
Malacosoma americana, 79, 87, 203 

disstria, 87, 204 



428 



INDEX 



Malarial mosquito, 50, 243, 244 
Mallophaga, 94, 100 
Mandibulate mouth parts, 5 

suctorial mouth parts, 10 
Mangel flea beetle, 317 
Manson and Ross, 50 
Mantids, praying, 105 
Mantis religiosa, 106 
Mantoidea, 102, 105 
Maple sesian, 217 

worm, 179 
Margaropus annulatus, 56, 366 
Marguerite fly, 262 
Mash, poison, 185, 398 
Mason bees, 357 
May beetles, 80, 81 

flies, 97, 98 
Mayetiola destructor, 71, 245 
Meadow froghopper, 153 

grasshopper, 114 

maggots, 71, 242 
Meal snout moth, 75, 208 

worms, 76, 327 
Mealy bugs, 131 

plum louse, 147 
Measuring worms, 207 
Meat fly, 92, 273 
Mecoptera, 97, 100 
Mediterranean flour moth, 74, 213 

fruit fly, 264 
Megachile, 357 
Megilla fuscilabris, 288 

maculata, 288 
Megorismus fletcheri, 149 
Melanoplus atlanis, 108, iii 

bivittatus, 108, 112 

differentialis, 108, 112 

femur-rubrum, 71, 108, 109 

spretus, 108, 109 
Melanotus communis, 294, 296 

cribulosus, 294 
Melittia satyriniformis, 217 
Meloidae, 38, 283, 325 
Melon insects, 77 

plant louse, 77, 148 
Melophagus ovinus, 91, 279 



Membracidas, 122 
Menopon pallidum, 91, 100 
Merodon equestris, 251 
Meromyza americana, 71, 260 
Merriam's life zones, 61 
Mesochorus, 197 
Mesogramma politus, 72, 251 
Mesoleius tenthredinidis, 406 
Metallic ground beetles, 287 

wood borers, 89, 300 
Metamorphosis, 33-38 
Meteorus, 197, 353, 406 
Methods of studying insects, 64-69 
Microcentrum, 114 
Microgaster, 42, 353 
Microlepidoptera, 174 
Midaidae, 240 
Midas flies, 240 
Midges, 252 
Millipeds, i, 76, 369 
Mineola indigenella, 78, 213 
Miscible oils, 391 
Mites, 364 
Mollusca, 370 
Monellia, 136 
Monocteniidae, 205 
Monodontomerus aereus, 200, 202, 354, 

405, 406 
Monohammus, 58, 325 
Monomorium minutum, 92, 360 

pharaonis, 92, 360 
Monophadnus rubi, 84, 347 
Mosquitoes, 243 

house, 8, 92 

malarial, 50, 92 
Mossy rose gall, 351 
Moths, 94, 169 
Mottled umber moth, 207 
Moulting, 34 
Mourning cloak, 177 
Mouth parts, 2-10 
Mud wasps, 356 
Murgantia histrionica, 63, 166 
Murky ground beetles, 286 
Musca domestica, 8, 53, 269, 270 
Muscidae, 242, 268 



INDEX 



429 



Muscina, 268, 273 
Muscoidea, 241 
Muscular system, 19 
Myrmicinae, 360 
Myzocallis, 137 
Myzus, 138 

cerasi, 144 

persicae, 83, 90, 144 

ribis, 85, 143 

N 

Nabidae, 159 

Nagana, 49, 54 

Naphthaline, 396 

Narcissus fly, 251 

Natural enemies of insects, 376 

Negro bug, 167 

Negundo plant louse, 149 

Nematocera, 239 

Nematodes, 371 

Nemobius, 115 

Nephelodes emmedonia, 188 

Nepticula pomivorella, 238 

Nepticulidae, 238 

Nerve winged insects, 94, 96 

Nervous system, 28 

Neuria procincta, 188 

Neurocolpus nubilis, 165 

Neuroptera, 96, 99 

Neuropteroida, 94, 96 

Neurotoma inconspicua, 348 

Nezara hilaris, 166 

pennsylvanica, 167 
Nine-spotted ladybird, 290 
Noctuidae, 173, 184 
Nose flies, 91, 259 
Notodontidae, 170 
Notolophus antiqua, 203 
Novius cardinalis, 40, 402 
Nozzles, 380 
Nymphalidae, 169, 176 

O 

Oak twig pruner, 324 

Oat aphis, 72, 78, 80, 141, 142 

Oberea bimaculata, 84, 322 



Oblique-banded leaf-roller, 78, 83, 230 
Odonata, 97, 99 
(Ecanthus, 47, 83, 84, 115 

nigricornis, 115, 116 

niveus, 115, 116 
(Edopodinae, 109 
OEstridae, 241, 254 
(Estrus, 254, 256 

ovis, 90, 260 
O'kane, Prof. W. C, 268 
Oleander scale, 134 
Onion maggot, 77, 276 

thrips, 121 
Oniscus asellus, 363 
Opheltes, 347 
Ophion, 352 

Orchard tent caterpillar, 79, 87, 203 
Oriental cockroach, 104 
Ornithodoros megnini, 365 
Orthezia insignis, 135 
Orthoptera, 102, 107 
Orthopteroida, 94, 102 
Orthorrhapha, 239 
Orthosia hibisci, 197 
Oscinidae, 241, 260 
Oscinis carbonaria, 71, 261 
Osmia, 357 

Osmoderma scabra, 82, 305 
Ostomatidae, 327 
Otiorhynchidae, 284, 336 
Otiorhynchus ovatus, 86, 336 

sulcatus, 90, 336 
Ovaries, 28 
Oviduct, 29 
Ovipositor, 18, 19 
Oxidus gracilis, 370 
Ox warble fly, 91, 257 
Oyster shell scale, 78, 124 



Paedogenesis, 30 
Paleacrita vernata, 205 
Pales favida, 202 
Pale striped flea beetle, 316 
Palmer worm, 79, 215 
Pamphilius fletcheri, 346 



430 



INDEX 



I';ip;ii|><tn;t, (lilcl.'i, z','/, i</, 
I';i{»ilio pfWyxcncs, 174 
I';ij>ili(>ni(la', j6f;, / 74 
I';ir;iIu(:oris huwl(;yi, J65 
I'arasif.cH, 4^ 

I'arasilic insects, iilili/,;ilif>/i of, 40; 
l';i.ris K'"'"*'", ^', .'i^.i 
I';i.rr(*t, l'rf»f., -^9-^ 
I'-'irsnip wc)> worm, 21/5 
l';irlli(;iioj.MTicsis, y.() 
I'avcnicnl ;ui(, ',0( 
f'c.'i inscc Is, 74 

rriol li, 74, y.y.(> 

|)l;iiil loii;,c, 74, i4f; 

weevil, :^i), 74, v,,^ 
I'e.'K.li uj)his, M.5 

inscctH, 8;^ 

le.'if weevil, ^','/ 

tree hark Ijectth;, ,5.50, ^40 
l>or(rr, So, «3, 'Ai<> 

I wi^ borer, H^, 215 
Tear leaf hiisf.er mile, ^(iH 

I)Hylla, 152 

sluK, 82, .i4« 

Jlirips, I K) 
l'ef|i( iilijs capitis, 5O, j08 

pubis, 168 

vesti(nef)li, 56, 1 08 
I'egoiiiyia vicina, 277 
I'clec inida;, 345, .^52 
I'elec ifius obturator, .352 
Pelidnola puiu faf;i,, 86, .502 
l'«llaj',ra, .'/> 
l'<lo|)rrus, .-^56 
I'eJiipiiij^US, i;i4, 1.^8 

i/(ibri< atr)r, i/\() 

populi( aulis, 149 

tessellalus, 149 
I'eimsyivjiiiia Jield (rickri, 115 
I'eiil.i rnera, 280 

I'edl.irllirofi rniiiiil iiin, .'/.(), ^49 
l'eiit;i,toiiii(l;e, 4/,, 1 /^c;, i(>(t 
I'entiiia misc-lla, 288, 289 
l'epp<r and salt currant rriolli, 260 
I'erillus circumcinctus, 4/,, i()/ 
Periodical cicada, 156 



I'eripkuief;i ;i rneri* ;i.na, lo.^j, 104 

auHtralaHi.X', jo;^, 104 

orientalis, 104 
I'erf>;iea niinuta, 2,^1 
Persian insect powder, >/)i 
f'liarynx, 24 
I'liasfnid.e, jo6 
I'haHrrifjidea, 102, 106 
F'lienaf ocf us, ajcricoia, 124, i.^^ 
I'liilajnus lincatus, 72, 15.3 

Hjiumarius, 15.3 
I'liilopferida-, 100 
ridy( ta-nia ferruj^.'dis, 90, 210 
Pliolus, I y<) 
I'liorbia brassif .'f, '/(>, 273 

(cparum, 77, 274, 276 

fuscircps, 72, 277 

rubivora, 84, 277 
I'lior/rii.'i, 270, 273 
I'liorodon, i /// 

liiiiniili, 145 
riiolo(riy/,a chrysanllietrii, 2O2 
riiololaxis, t;7 ^9 
I'lillioropliloiis liiiiinaris, ,',40 
f'liy< it i<l;e, 21 ,^ 
I'liyllajjhis, 13O 
l'liylIocoi)tcs, 369 
riiyllo()liaga, 302 
IMiyllotreta armoracea-, 314 

vittata, 76, 314 
I'liylloxera, 139 

vastatrix, 85, 147 
Pliymatida-, 43, 159 
riiytononius, 329 

ni/^rirostris, 337 

post i( us, :^^^ 

piiiH talus, 73, 331, 332 
IMiytopiia^^a, 281, 283 
I'ierida-, 169, 171; 
IMcris iiapi, 1 ■/(> 

rapa-, 64, y/, 175 
Pi^-^eon trcmex, 350 
Pill bu^s, 363 

Pinipla con(|uisitor, 204, 22O, 231, 352, 
406 

in(|ui8itor, 203, 204, 231, 352 



INDKX 



4.U 



IMiic l)ark aphid, i 50 

saw lly, ,u() 

Wood borers, ^^2^ 
IMstoI case lu'arcr, 78, 235 
rilliy hiackbrrry KivH. 35 1 
I'ilifid ladybird, 2^H 
IMtyoktcincs sparsus, 34.; 
IMaKionotus sptxiosus, .S(^, 3^4 

I'lant cahMS, .'Si 

Hco, 1 22, 130 
lMatiiyi)cna scabra, 105 
PlutyK.istcr, 3S 
IMcioptcra, oS 

I'lodia in(iM|)iiiu Iclla, /.], • 1 4 
IMuni a[)his, So 

curcuHo, So, 330 

i user Is, So 

scale, Si , I .'(> 

sphinx, Si , 1 yS 

web s|)iniiiiiK saw lly, 34S 
I'hihila MKK iilipciinis, 7O, 232 
Podisiis spiiiosiis, i()7 
Podiirida*, (jO 

INcc iloca|)SUS lineatiis, S5, i()3 
Poison baits, 308 
F*ois()nous jj;asrs, ^](),\ 
Poisons, ^Hj^ 
l*oHsU'8, 356 
Pollcnia, 26H, 273 
I'oiychrosis vilcana, S(>, 22H 
Polydc'snuis canadensis, 370 
Polyf^noliis hicniabs, 35.*, 401 
PoIy^ra|)hiis inlipcnnis, 342 
IN)ly[)h<'iniis molh, •/(), iSo 
Polyphylla, 302, 304 
Poma(c MifS, 2C)0 
l'<»|)lar borer, S() 

leaf ^all lons<', 1 4(^ 
I'orccllio hevis, :i()_^ 
Porosa^rolis, iSS, 193 
Porlhetria dispar, 87, 200 
Potato beetle, 77, 308 

Ilea beetle, 77, 313 

insects, 76, 77 

plaiil louse, 77, I4(; 



Potato stalk borer, 77, m)(), j,\<; 
Poullry ilch mile, 3(>5 

miles, 3()4 

pests, ()i 
l\>W(l(>r post beetle, 3,'S 
Piiiyin^ manlids, 105 
Predaceous beetles, 40, 41 

insects, 40, 4 i 
Pre\("iiti\'e met hods, 374 
Prioinis lati(<)Ilis, X^, 322 
Prionoxyslus lobini.r, SS, 238 
Proctotrypida-, 4.;, 344, 351 
Profenusa collaris, 348 
Promethea moth,S.', 1 So 
I'rosopis, 357 
]*rospaltella, 40, 354, 403 
I'rolectors, 3()(> 
Protoparce, i 77 
Proveiilriculus, 2.\ 
Provisional larval or^'ans, 35 
Pseudococcns, 1 .'4 

(itri, 133 

lonf^ispiiuis, ()o, 133 

trifolii, 73, 133 
Psila rosa*, 7(), 2(12 
I'silida*, 242, 262 
l*sithyrns, 357 
Ps»)( i(he, 103 
Psorosina, 70, ^13 
Psoro|)les communis, 300 
Psylla pyri( ola, 1 52 
Psylli(h-e, I,'.- 

Psylliodcs pniK I iiiala, 3 1 •/ 
Plenxomma, 13O 
Pterom.'ilns pnpariim, 175, 354 

cKreniiis, 202, 405 
Pteroniis ribesii, 85, 34O 
l'terosli( hus lucublandus, ^S(» 
Ptinidu;, 283, 328 
Piilex irritans, 2 7() 

serraticeps, 0^, 2S0 
Puliciche, 270 
Pulvinaria, 1 ,'4 

vitis, 85, 8(;, 130 

I'nnkies, ,?5- 
Pnpal stage, 3O, 37 



432 



INDEX 



Pupipara, 242 

Purple-backed cabbage worm, 209 

Putnam scale, 127 

Pygidia, 127 

Pyralididae, 208 

Pyralids, 174, 207 

Pyralis farinalis, 75, 208 

Pyrausta nubilalis, 72, 73, 212 

Pyraustidae, 208, 212 

Pyrethrum, 391 

Pyrrhocoridffi, 159 



R 



Rachela bruceata, 207 
Railroad worm, 266 
Raspberry byturus, 84, 292 

cane borer, 84, 322 
maggot, 84, 277 

insects, 83-84 

saw fly, 84, 347 

webworm, 346 
Recurvaria nanella, 215 
Red bugs, 159 

apple, 165 

backed cutworm, 187 

humped apple caterpillar, 79, 199 

legged flea beetle, 316 
locust, 71, 108, 109 

necked blackberry borer, 84, 301 

spider, 76, 367 

tailed bot fly, 91, 259 

turnip beetle, 309 
Reed, Major Walter, 52 
Relatives of insects, near, i, 363 
Remedial methods of control, 374 
Repellents, 395 
Reproductive system, 28-29 
Respiratory system, 22-23 
Resplendent shield bearer, 79, 232 
Restriction and exclusion of insects, 376 
Rhagoletis, 264 

cingulata, 83, 265 

fuasta, 83, 266 

pomonella, 266 



Rhodites rosae, 351 
Rhopalosiphum, 138 
Rhynchites bicolor, 334 
Rhyncophora, 281, 328 
Rice weevil, 75, 337 
Riley, Dr. C. V., xi, xiii 

Dr. W. A., 252 
Rise of economic entomology, x 
Roaches, 104 
Robber flies, 240 
Rocky mountain locust, xi, 61, 108, 109 

spotted fever tick, 56, 366 
Root aphids, 144, 147, 148 

borers, 83, 321 

crop insects, 76 

maggots, 72, 76, 77, 273 

web worms, 210 
Rose beetle, 82, 334 

chafer, 82, 305 

leaf hopper, 156 

midge, 248 

sawfly, 348 

scale, 128 

slugs, 348, 349 
Rosy apple aphis, 78, 80, 144 
Rotation of crops, 374 
Rough osmoderma, 82, 305 
Round headed apple tree borer, 78, 320 
Rove beetles, 282 
Rust flies, 262 

fly, carrot, 76, 262 



Saissetia, 123, 134 

hemispherica, 134 
Salivary glands, 24 
Salt marsh caterpillar, 181 
Samia cecropia, 79, 180 
San Jose scale, xi, 2, 38, 48, 60, 63, 64, 

78, 80, 126, 127 
Saperda Candida, 78, 320 
Sarcophagidae, 242 
Sarcoptes mutans, 91, 365 

scabiei, 365 



INDEX 



433 



Sarcoptidae, 364, 365 
Saturniidae, 180 
Saturniina, 174, 179 
Saunders, Dr. W., xiii 
Sawflies, 345 
Sawhorn beetles, 280 
Saw- toothed grain beetle, 75, 327 
Scale insects, 122 
Scarabaeidae, 283, 302 
Scatophagidae, 241 
Scavenger beetles, 40, 301 
Schedius, 404, 406 
Schizoneura lanigera, 77, 145 
Schizura concinna, 79, 199 
Sclerites, 2 
Scolytidae, 339 
Scorpion flies, 100 
Scotogramma trifolii, 189 
Screens, muslin, 396 
Screw worm, fly, 273 
Scudderia furcata, 44 
Scurfy scale, 78, 125 
Scutelleridae, 159 
Scutellista cyanea, 354, 403 
Searcher, 287 
Seed corn maggot, 72, 277 
Seidemia devastator, 188 
Sensoria, 134 
Septis arctica, 188 
Serpentine leaf miner, 238 
Serphoidea, 352 
Serricornia, 280, 283 
Sesiidae, 216 

Seventeen-year locust, 156 
Shade tree insects, 87-89 
Sheep bot fly, 90, 260 

insects, 90 

scab mite, 90, 366 

tick, 91, 279 
Shot hole borer, 341 
Silk worm moths, 174, 179 
Silpha bituberosa, 293 

opaca, 293 
Silphidae, 282, 293 
Silvanus surinamensis, 75, 327 
Silver fish, 92 
28 



Simuliidae, 240, 251 
Simulium, 53, 251 
Sipha, 136 

Siphocoryne avenae, 138 
Siphonaptera,,94, 279 
Siphunculata, 94, 167 
Siricidae, 344, 350 
Sitka spruce gall louse, 149 
Sitodrepa panicea, 328 
Sitotroga cerealella, 74, 214 
Six-spotted leaf hopper, 72, 154 
Skippers, 169 
Sladen, F. W. L., 48 
Sleeping sickness, 54 
Slugs, 348, 349, 370 
Smell, organs of, 11 
Snout beetles, 281, 328 

moths, 207 
Snowy tree cricket, 116 
Soap, 390 

Sodium fluoride, 385, 392 
Soft scales, 129 
Soldier flies, 240 
Solenopsis, 360 
Soluble sulphur, 389, 390 
Span worms, 204 
Sphaerostilbe coccophila, 46 
Sphecius, 356 
Sphecoidea, 345, 356 
Sphenophorus, 72, 338 
Sphinx, 79 

abbott's, 178 

achemon, 178 

drupiferarum, 81, 178 

grape vine, 178 

pandorus, 179 

plum, 81, 178 

tomato, 177 

twin spotted, 179 

white lined, 178 
Spinach carrion beetle, 293 

flea beetle, 316 
Spinose ear tick, 365 
Spirobolus, 370 
Spittle insects, 122, 153 
Sporotrichum globuliferum, 46 



434 



INDEX 



Spotted cutworm, 185 
fever, 56 
halisidota, 183 
legged cutworm, 193 
megilla, 288 
paria, 86 
pelidnota, 86 
Smartweed flea beetle, 315 
Spray gun nozzle, 381 
Spraying, 377, 381 

equipment, 378 
Spring canker worm, 205 

grain aphis, 142 
Spruce bud worm, 231 

gall aphids, 89, 149, 150 
Squash bug, 77, 160 
insects, 77 
ladybird, 290 
vine borer, 217 
Stable fly, 8, 10, 53, 92, 271 
Stag beetles, 82, 318 
Stagmomantis Carolina, 105 
Stalk borers, 87, 196 
Staphylinidae, 282 
Stegomyia fasciata, 52 
Stem girdler, currant, 84, 345 
Sternorhynchi, 122 
Sternum, 14, 17 
Stigmus, 356 
Stimuli, 57 
Stink bugs, 166 
Stomach, 24 
Stomoxys calcitrans, 8, 10, 53, 92, 268, 

271 
Stone flies, 98 
Stratiomyiidje, 240 
Strawberry crown borer, 86, 335 
flea beetle, 86, 307 
insects, 86 
leaf roller, 86, 232 
root borer, 86, 313 
louse, 148 
weevil, 87, 332 
saw fly, 347 
thrips, 87, 122 
Striped cucumber beetle, 76, 307 



Structure of insects, 2-30 
Sucking lice, 167 
Suctorial mouth parts, 6-10 
Sugar beet web worm, 210 

maple borer, 89, 324 
Sulphur, 394 

soap, 391 

and lime, 389 
Swallow tails, 174 
Sweet cherry aphis, 144 
Sympathetic nerve system, 28 
Synanthedon acerni, 217 

exitiosa, 80, 216 

pictipes, 217 ' 

tipuliformis, 84, 217 
Synchlora ajrata, 84 
Syriphidae, 240, 250 
Syrphids, ^50 
Systena blanda, 315 

frontalis, 86, 315 

hudsonias, 315 

taeniata, 315 



Tabanids, 252 
Tabanus, 8 

atratus, 91, 252 
Tachina flies, 42, 278 

mella, 203, 204 
Tachinidae, 42, 242, 278 
Tajniothrips inconsequens, 119 
Taeniopteryx, 97 
Tanglefoot, 396 
Tapestry moth, 92, 237 
Tar-felt paper disks, 397 
Tarnished plant bug, 84, 163 

false, 164 
Tarsonemidae, 364, 369 
Tarsonemus, 369 
Taste, organs of, 1 1 
Telea polyphemus, 79, 180 
Telenomus bifidus, 352 
Temperatures, high and low, 400 
Tenebrio molitor, 76, 328 

obscurus, 329 



INDEX 



435 



Tenebrionidae, 283, 328 

Tenebroides mauritanicus, 76, 327 

Tent caterpillar moths, 79, 174, 203 

Tenthredinidae, 344, 345 

Tergum, 14, 17 

Termitidae, 102 

Terrapin scale, 90, 1 29 

Testes, 28 

Tetramorium, 360 

Tetraneura, 138 

Tetranychidae, 364, 367 

Tetranychus bimaculatus, 367 

Tetrastichus, 354, 407 

Thalessa, 352 

Thick-headed flies, 241 

Thirteen-spotted ladybird, 290 

Thomas, C, xiii 

Thorax, 14 

Thrips, 72, 118 

tabaci, 14, 121 
Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, 207 
Thysanura, 95 
Thysanoptera, 94, 118 
Thysanuriform larva, 33 
Thysbe, clear-wing, 179 
Ticks, 56, 366 
Tiger moths, 87 

beetles, 41, 284 
Tinea pellionella, 92, 236 
Tineids, 174, 236 
Tineina, 174, 236 
Tineola biselliella, 92, 237 
Tiphia, 356 
Tipulidae, 239, 242 
Tischeria malifoliella, 79, 235 
Tischeriidae, 235 

Tmetocera ocellana, 23, 26, 78, 225 
Tobacco, 391, 394, 3Q5 

extracts, 391 

sphinx, 177 
Tomato sphinx, 177 
Tortricidae, 229 
Tortricina, 174, 218 
Toxoptera graminum, 138, 142 
Tracheal gills, 2^ 
Transition zone, 61 



Traps and trap crops, 397 
Tree crickets, 116 

hoppers, 122 
Tremex columba, 350 
Tribolium confusum, 75, 329 
Trichobaris trinotata, 77, 335 
Trichodectes scalaris, 91 
Trichodectidae, 100 
Trichogramma, 354, 406 
Trichophaga, 92 

tapetzella, 237 
Trichoptera, 99 
Trimera, 281 
Trinotum lituratum, 102 

luridum, 102 
Trioza tripunctata, 84, 152 
Trogositidae, 327 
Trogus, 352 
Trombidiidae, 364 
Tropisms, 57, 59 
Tropoea luna, 180 
Trypanosomiasis, 54 
Trypeta pomonella, 80, 266 
Trypetidae, 242, 264 
Try poxy Ion, 356 
Tsetse flies, 54 
Turkey lice, 102 
Turnip beetle, red, 309 
Turnip flea beetle, 76, 314 
Turpentine, 395 
Tussock moth, 79, 87, 170, 202 
Twelve-spotted cucumber beetle, 308 

asparagus beetle, 313 
Twice-stabbed chilocorus, 288 
Twig-borer, apple, 328 
Two-lined chestnut borer, 308 
Two-spotted adalia, 287 

hyperaspis, 288 
Two-striped locust, 112 
Twin-spotted sphinx, 179 
Tychius picirostris, 335 
Tyloderma fragariae, 86, 335 
Typhoid fly, 53 
Typhus fever, 56 
Typophorus canellus, 313 
Tyroglyphidas, 364 



436 



INDEX 



U 



Umber moth, mottled, 207 
Underwing moths, 198 
Upper Austral zone, 61 
Utilization of parasitic insects, 401 



Variable currant aphis, 147 

Variegated cutworm, 186 

Venation of wings, 15, 139, 158, 170-173, 

240-241, 344 
Vespa, 356 
Vespidae, 356 
Vespoidea, 345, 356 
Violet gall fly, 90 
Vermorel nozzle, 380 



W 



Wheat thrips, 122 

wineworm, 295 
Wheeler, Dr. W. M., 59 
Whirligig beetles, 282 
White ants, 102 

banded cherry fruit fly, 265 

cedar twig borer, 233 

cutworm, 192 

fly, 90, 122, 151 

grubs, 56, 71, 72, 77, 302 

lined sphinx, 178 

marked tussock moth, 202 
Willow flea beetle, 311 
Wings, 15, 16 

Winthemia 4-pustulata, 184, 190 
Wire-netting, 397 
Wireworms, 71, 72, 77, 293 
Wood lice, 363 
Woolly aphis of apple and elm, 77, 89, 

14s 
maple leaf scale, 133 



W-marked cutworm, 185 

Wash for tree trunks, 396 

Walking sticks, 106 

Walnut caterpillar, 88, 199 

Walsh, B. D., xiii 

Warble flies, 91, 255-258 

Wasps, 356 

Water scavengers, 282 

Webbing clothes moths, 82, 237 

Webster, F. M., xi, 63, 401 

Web worms, 210 

Weevils, 329 

Western corn root worm, 308 
hemlock woolly aphis, 149 
wheat stem sawfly, 71, 349 
willow leaf beetle, 310 

Whaleoil soap, 390 

Wheat insects, 71 
jointworm, 354 
midge, 72, 249 
plant louse, 71, 142 
stem maggot, 71, 72, 260 

sawfly, 349 
straw worm, 354 



X 



Xiphidium, 114 
Xylocopa, 357 



Yellow bear caterpillar, 181 
fever, 83 

headed cutworm, 188 
mealworm, 76, 328 
necked caterpillar, 79, 198 

Yponomeuta malina, 233 
padella, 233 

Yponomeutidae, 233 



Zebra caterpillar, 76, 188 
Zenoleum, 396 
Zeuzera pyrina, 88, 237 
Zophodia grossulariae, 85 



